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Student Research submissions 2013 (2013 research options) |
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Lori Arnold
18 November 2013
Forster’s
Disruption of the Self/Other Binary through Said’s Theories
Table of Contents
Introduction - Journal entry 1
Biographical Report of Forster - Journal entry 2
Biographical Report of Said - Journal entry 3
Breaking apart the self/other binary with Said and Forster
- Journal entry 4
Character analysis - Journal entry 5
Conclusion: The new direction of
criticism on
A Passage to India
and Forster generally - Journal entry 6
Forster’s
Disruption of the Self/Other Binary through Said’s Theories
Introduction - Journal entry 1
E.M. Forster’s novel
A Passage to India
has been an important novel in
colonial/postcolonial studies since its publication in 1924. However, it differs
from some of Forster’s other popular novels in important ways. Unlike
A Room with a View
and
Howard’s End,
A Passage to
India is a very dense novel. It lends itself
well to study from a postcolonial perspective because the entire novel is set in
colonial India and the primary plot hinges on the interaction between British
colonists and the Indian natives; however, the complexity and foreignness of the
interaction between these two societies contributes to the density of this great
text. Another contributing factor to the difficulty of this novel is the
unfamiliarity of his characters. One of the most charming characteristics of
Forster’s works is the winsome female protagonists that he often portrays. Lucy
Honeychurch and Margaret and Helen Schlegel are wonderful examples of these
female characters. On the other hand, most of the English characters seem
completely out of place in
A Passage of India. The
novel can be particularly troubling for Western students because none of the
English characters are entirely sympathetic. Forster makes the familiar strange
and the strange familiar in
A Passage to India
through his primary characters.
The work of Forster and
Edward Said intersect at the self/other binary. Said’s work as a theorist in
postcolonial studies focuses a great deal on the self/other binary, specifically
as a racial binary. As a foundational theorist in postcolonial studies, Said’s
own critique of
A Passage to India has
been an important part of the criticism of the novel. In most of colonial
literature, the self/other binary is very clearly marked down lines of
colonizer/colonized. By choosing to create an Indian native as the protagonist,
Forster greatly disturbs the self/other binary that readers are accustomed to in
colonial literature. After the Marabar caves incident, Dr. Aziz becomes the most
sympathetic character in the novel, even though the British paint him as an evil
criminal. Forster further breaks apart the self/other binary by introducing the
characters of Mrs. Moore and Professor Fielding. These two English characters
empathize with Aziz and become his allies against the British governance.
Although Mrs. Moore and Fielding desire to enter the field of difference when
they recognize that Aziz is like themselves in many ways, whether or not they
are truly successful remains ambiguous at the end of the novel. The self/other
binary is thus a complicated, but fascinating lens to critique
A Passage to India.
Additionally, Forster addresses both a racial and gender binary in his novels,
including A
Passage to India. The recent turn in Forster
criticism specifically on
A Passage to India seeks
to merge the fields of postcolonial and gender studies that creates a more
complex view of this somewhat troubling novel.
As a student with a fondness
for E.M. Forster, and a very strong case of Anglophilia, I decided to conduct
some research on Forster’s
A Passage to India for my
research project on colonial/postcolonial literature. As I read this novel for
the first time, a number of questions began to surface as a result of viewing it
from a postcolonial perspective. A journal seemed a fitting genre for this
project because I am interested in several different aspects of postcolonial
study that relate to
A Passage to India. As an
American student and self-professed Anglophile, I generally identify more
closely with the colonizer in colonial literature, particularly because I have
not had the experience of being part of a colonized culture, which places me in
an initially uncomfortable relationship with this novel. Some of the questions
that are raised by considering both gender and race in
A Passage to India
are:
1) What was Forster’s experience with India that informed his
portrayal of the colony and the characters in the novel?
2) How do the primary characters of
A Passage to
India complicate the self/other binary?
4) Is a homoerotic relationship between Aziz and Fielding the
primary way that Forster complicates the gender binary?
5) How can Said’s theories of the
self/other binary be used to interpret
A Passage to India
differently than Said himself viewed the novel?
6) Finally, what direction is Forster criticism taking at the
beginning of the twenty-first century and what could this say about about the
continuing relevance of self/other binaries in literature?
Biographical Report of E.M. Forster - Journal entry 2
E.M. Forster, acclaimed
novelist of the early twentieth century, completed the last novel published
during his lifetime following his second visit to India.
A Passage to India,
published in 1924, was a great achievement for Forster, but also marked the end
of his novel writing career (Zimmerman). Several of his novels involve
commentary on the British abroad; however,
A Passage to India
is the only novel to address a visit to a British colony. Although he was raised
and lived most of his life in England, Forster made several visits abroad
throughout his adult life. He visited India in 1912-1913, where he traveled with
his first Indian love interest, Syed Ross Masood (Zimmerman). Following this
visit, he began writing
A Passage to India, which
he stopped writing for a time in order to begin work on
Maurice.
Although he successfully completed an openly homosexual novel,
Maurice,
Forster dared not publish such a novel during his lifetime because of the severe
laws against homosexuality that pervaded English society during his lifetime.
Forster was prompted to return to
A Passage to India
following his second visit to India in 1921-1922. During this second visit he
worked as the personal secretary for the maharajah of the native state of Dewas
Senior (Zimmerman). The experiences of his second visit to India also prompted
Forster’s return to the manuscript that became
A Passage to India.
Although it was published in 1924 to great acclaim, the novel did prove to
signal the end of his novel writing career.
A Passage to
India may be Forster’s great
colonial/postcolonial novel, but it does not explain the extent of his
involvement with the colony of India. In his essay, “Only Connecting?: E. M.
Forster, Empire Broadcasting and the Ethics of Distance,” Daniel Morse discusses
Forster’s work for the BBC Eastern Service. As a broadcaster to India, Forster
took great care to review literature by Indians written for Indians (Morse 88).
He worked for the BBC Eastern Service reviewing books from 1941 until Indian
independence in 1947 (Morse 88). Morse argues that an examination of the
transcripts from Forster’s broadcasts demonstrates that he was forward thinking
in his views of colonial/postcolonial relations. Thus, while
A Passage to India
portrays in fiction the complexities of the relationships between the colonizer
and the colonized from the perspective of the colonizer, Forster’s broadcasts
seek to acknowledge the perspective of the colonized in a way that was unusual
in his time and belies some of the criticism of Forster that has considered his
work as an outdated colonial perspective of colonial/colonized relations.
Biographical Report of Edward Said - Journal entry 3
The literary
theorist and cultural critic Edward Said was uniquely positioned to pioneer the
field of postcolonial criticism because of his biographical situation. “He was
born on November 1, 1935” in Jerusalem while it was under British mandate
(European Graduate School). He spent his adult life as a professor at Columbia
University, and several other prestigious universities in the United States.
According to the European Graduate School website, “The Palestinian-American
intellectual to be would spend his life investigating the...imaginary line that
divides the East and the West” (European Graduate School). Said’s life is an
example of the complex relationships between East and West that result because
of colonization. In speaking about his education Said stated, “I was born in
Jerusalem and had spent most of my formative years there and...when my entire
family became refugees, in Egypt. All my early education had, however, been in
élite colonial schools, English public schools designed by the British to bring
up a generation of Arabs with natural ties to Britain”(European Graduate
School). Said’s education resembled that of Dr. Aziz in
A Passage to India.
He is clearly not British, but his education enabled him to understand the
conquering culture. However, he expressed feelings of discomfort with both his
native Palestinian culture and the conquering culture he was educated in because
of the conflict between them. According to Said, language demonstrates the
conflict between cultures that extends to “an unexceptionally Arab family name
like Saïd connected to an improbably British first name (my mother much admired
the Prince of Wales in 1935, the year of my birth)” (European Graduate School).
Even Said’s name expresses the conflict in cultures that his native languages
demonstrate.
Despite feeling uncomfortable with the
conflict of Arabic and English that he experienced, Said chose to use language
to explore colonial/postcolonial conflict and identity in literature.
Orientalism,
published in 1978, outlines many of the foundational themes of postcolonial
study today. However, the book has been very controversial because Said posits
that people make judgments about people that are physically different from
themselves because of cultural biases that they have been taught (Sered). This
idea has been very influential in literary theory as it has become known as the
self/other binary. Literary theorists and critics have discovered that this
concept applies to more than just race and certainly applies to more than a
black/white binary. It is also a binary that applies to gender. Feminists and
Gender theorists have looked at the ways that culture has defined male and
female as a very strict binary. Said has also been very outspoken about ways
that Arabs and the Middle East is currently very strongly “othered.” He wrote
that the Arab is seen as menacing and evil character in Western cultures and in
literature (Sered). This upset Said greatly because he attempted to break down
these barriers through his writing by exposing these biased points of view.
Breaking Down the self/other binary with Said and Forster
- Journal entry 4
Although written after
A Passage to India,
Said’s
Orientalism contains many ideas that can be
applied to this novel. According to Amardeep Singh, Said claimed, “one of the
defining figures for the ‘Orient’ from the early Middle Ages was the figure of
Islam and ‘Mohammedanism’ as Europe’s other” (44). Singh points out that this is
not the case for Forster, in part because he expressed a greater feeling of
familiarity with this monotheistic religion than with the polytheistic Hinduism.
Instead, Forster chooses to represent the primary Islamic character, Dr. Aziz
sympathetically. By choosing to present events in the novel through the point of
view of Aziz, Forster presents the Islamic Indian as a ‘self’ that readers can
more readily identify with. By forcing personal, rather than simply business
transactions between Anglo Indians and the native Indians, Forster sets the
self/other binary in strong relief. Ironically, Forster uses the voices of two
women to point out the obvious binary at work in the colonial society of India.
As outsiders Mrs. Moore and Adela Quested recognize the flaws in the society
that stem from the inability of either side to enter the field of difference
that would recognize the positive characteristics of both sides and see
themselves as equals. Through the character of Professor Fielding, Forster
points out that the self/other binary cannot be broken as long as the
colonizer/colonized relationship still exists. Despite the fact that Fielding
does not see himself as a colonizer because he does not work directly for the
British government, he is still a member of the governing race and society.
Thus, he cannot fit into the native Indian society completely until the colonial
relationship is abolished.
Forster also disturbs the
gender binary in
A Passage to India. The
Indian society is so separated through
Purdah
that men and women only interact with their spouses. As a widower, Aziz has not
interacted with women recently, and he is surprised at how easily he is able to
converse with Mrs. Moore. However, both are widowed parents, and they easily
connect through discussions of their children. Aziz finds it difficult to
converse with Adela because she is a young single woman whom he does not find
attractive. His interactions with Adela, demonstrate that Aziz does not view
women as friends, but rather as objects of desire usually (131). This makes his
relationship with Mrs. Moore unusual and causes him to glorify her following the
trial for her unwillingness to take the side of the Anglo Indians (254). The
relationship between the Anglo Indian men and women tries to maintain the
traditional gender roles accepted in England. However, their presence in a
colony that they view as hostile or savage causes the men to feel that their
wives need an extra measure of protection. When Adela accuses Aziz of attempting
to rape her, no one questions her role in the episode. Instead, the British
women and even more so, the men, delight in placing Adela in the role of the
victim. Adela boldly proclaims her desire to understand the real India, and she
does not feel that it is necessary to have the protection of her fiance when she
visits the Marabar caves with Aziz. When Adela shows traditional signs of
feminine weakness, the Anglo Indians happily care for and pity her. Forster
shows the biases in both cultures that have informed their particular
perspectives on gender. Although both cultures have strong gender binaries,
Forster may not be portraying the Indian gender binary accurately because he was
only a visitor to India and not Indian himself.
The primary characters of the novel, Dr. Aziz,
Professor Fielding, Adela Quested, and Mrs. Moore all escape traditional
stereotypes of the masculine/feminine binary. Both men inhabit some feminine
characteristics, but are not evidently homosexual because they both express
desire for women. The bond that both men desire to create is more strongly
homosocial than homosexual. As Forster portrays them, both men strongly desire
an authentic bond with each other because they recognize some similar ways of
viewing the world in each other. Neither man desires the companionship of the
other because they are racially different; however, at least initially, that
difference does not prevent them from forming a bond. Adela and Mrs. Moore, on
the other hand, display some traditionally masculine characteristics, which
enable them to connect more easily with the somewhat feminized Aziz and
Fielding. Neither woman is strongly attached to a man, although their
relationships with Heaslop is what brings them to India. From the beginning of
the novel, both women express a strong desire to “conquer” India by
understanding the culture and the people. Their desire to conquer is thwarted
and each woman leaves India by the end of the novel. A short character analysis
of the primary characters can further help explain the ways that Forster breaks
down binaries in his novel.
Character Analysis - Journal entry 5
Dr. Aziz
As the primary Indian character in the novel, Dr.
Aziz is Forster’s most strongly drawn native. It is clear from the first scene
with Aziz that he fulfills the expectations of Mrs. Moore and Adela Quested for
native Indians (44). However, the primary reason that he is able to speak with
them in a way that they understand is because he has been educated by the
British school system. At the initial meeting at the Mosque, Aziz appears as the
perfect romantic Moslem that Mrs. Moore has imagined (51). She describes him to
Adela, who has clearly come to India with the desire to experience the
exoticized “other” of her literary perception. The two of them are anxious to
spend their time in India meeting with the “other.” While Aziz is a native
Indian, and thus, the “other,” he has previous experience with the British that
enables him to fit the role that the British colonizers expect him to fill. The
meeting at Professor Fielding’s home exposes some of the problems that exist in
the self/other binary of the British/Indian interactions. The women and Aziz do
not understand each other and they clearly do not recognize the difficulties
that arise because of their request to visit the Marabar caves (92). Aziz fears
disappointing the British women, who he desires very much to please, so he does
not tell them that he has never been to the caves and that it will be a huge
inconvenience for him to arrange the trip.
After the incident at the caves, Aziz almost
disappears from the novel until the trial. At the trial he appears as the noble
Indian, but the British see him as the face of evil (229). The trial is
climactic, but the events afterward reveal a puzzling aspect of Aziz. It is
clear that the reality of facing death has a terrible effect upon him and he is
not only completely turned against Adela, but he decides to pursue financial
retribution for the injury he suffered (251). This desire to quantify his
suffering in financial terms causes Aziz to appear as a less sympathetic
character. While events end badly with Adela in Chandrapore, the ending of the
novel brings some reconciliation between the Fielding and Aziz, but there is
ultimately no reconciliation between race and gender between Aziz and the
British women.
Professor Fielding
The character of Professor
Fielding can be characterized as a stand-in for Forster in
A Passage to India.
Initially, he moves between the world of the British and the natives; however,
he is more and more polarized as the novel progresses. The ease with which
Fielding is able to shift between the two cultures allows him to reach out to
Aziz and develop a friendship with both British women. Forster uses Fielding to
distort and break apart the self/other binaries of race and gender that appear
throughout the novel. Mrs. Moore and Adela admire Fielding’s shared interest in
Indian culture and they look to him as a male who can help them navigate the
cultural challenges they face. Although he does not share a homosocial bond with
any of the British men, Fielding shares a common bond with both the effiminite
and exocitized Aziz and the rather masculine British women (65). He appears
capable of bringing together the two disparate groups because of the
similarities he shares with both the native Indians and the British colonizers.
The tea party at Fielding’s rooms illustrates the desire of Fielding and Aziz to
develop a genuine friendship (81). Forster honestly portrays the complications
that result when different races attempt to bond in friendship. Fielding appears
to genuinely desire to reach a level of intersubjectivity in his relationship
with Aziz, where the two men are equal. At first, this friendship appears
possible and presents itself as the solution to the stark self/other binary that
Forster portrays initially in
A Passage to India.
The ideal relationship between these two men begins to crack
when Fielding fails to meet expectations. Aziz asks Fielding to come on the trip
to the Marabar caves because he needs the British man to help make the trip
enjoyable for the British ladies, with whom he has very little experience (80).
Although this is not explicitly stated, Aziz desires for Fielding to bridge the
gender gap as well as the cultural gap (140). Thus, when Fielding is unable to
attend the party to the Marabar caves, Aziz is dreadfully disappointed (144).
Fielding demonstrates guilt over this when he sides with Aziz during the trial
and more importantly defends the Indian man at the British club (196).
Unfortunately, Fielding’s bold move does not have the desired effect of
strengthening his relationship with Aziz. Rather, in coming to the defense of
the Indian against a British women, Fielding actually creates further inequity
between himself and Aziz. By demonstrating his desire to defend Aziz, Fielding
shows that he views the Indian as below him in at least interactions with the
British (178). Although Fielding himself does not directly influence the outcome
of the trial, he remains very involved with both Adela and Aziz afterwards.
Thus, Fielding chooses to support his countrywoman instead of Aziz, which leads
to a rift between the two men (253). If the novel simply ended there, it would
seem that the relationship between the British man (colonizer) and the Indian
(the colonized) cannot be a true homosocial bond. However, the ending scene
between Fielding and Aziz complicates the colonizer/colonized binary even
further by resolving the misunderstanding that tore them apart after the trial.
The novel ends too abruptly to show the two men in a relationship of
intersubjectivity, because Forster wants to show that resolving the issues of
race that the relationship reveals cannot be easily portrayed (316). Although
many critics read the ending scene as a portrayal of the homoerotic desire
between Fielding and Aziz, the significant role that Adela Quested plays in
separating the two men following the trial appears to indicate otherwise.
Adela Quested
From the beginning of
A Passage to India,
Adela Quested complicates both racial and gender binaries. As an outsider to
India, she has very different views from the other British living in India.
Instead, her ideas about India and Indians have been informed by books (155).
Perhaps because she sees her visit as an adventure, Adela is interested in
getting to know the Indians (48). However, Adela has a romanticized view of
India, which causes her to begin seeing all of her life more romantically. Once
she reaches India, Adela sees the major differences between the culture of India
and the stiff British culture that she is accustomed to (52). She is quite
surprised initially that the Anglo British men and women have no desire to mix
with the Indians aside from business. In all of their business transactions they
are above the Indians, which allows them to carefully preserve the racial
binary. Unlike the Anglo British, Adela allows the experiences that she has in
India to begin changing her perspective of her own life (157). As she visits the
Marabar caves with Aziz, Adela is beginning to question her feelings for Heaslop
(162). For Adela, this is a completely new sensation because she is a very
practical person and like the stereotypical British person does not make
decisions based upon feelings.
Adela’s experience in the Marabar cave is the most confusing
episode of the novel. Forster does not ever resolve what actually takes place in
the Marabar cave, because that is not important to Adela’s narrative.
Ultimately, what happens to Adela is psychological. She is so overwhelmed by the
psychological changes that India is prompting in her that Adela feels as if she
has been psychologically raped by the country. She cannot express this verbally,
so Adela chooses to find an escape through Aziz. Unfortunately, Adela did not
imagine the consequences of her accusation beforehand. It is possible that
Adela continues with the lie as long as she does because she finds that once she
becomes the victim of an Indian man, the Anglo British society that she is
joining begins to accept her (199). Adela allows herself to be the victim until
the day of the trial, although she knows that she is lying to everyone including
her fiance. Fortunately, without really ever explaining herself, Adela recants
her accusation during the trial and saves Aziz’s life (231). She tries to
explain herself to both Heaslop and Fielding, but neither man is interested in
the woman’s reasoning. Although Adela attempts to overcome gender stereotypes
through her practicality and reliance upon reason rather than feelings, she
ultimately fails because others perceive her actions surrounding the trial as
very emotional and unreasonable.
Conclusion: The New Direction of
criticism on
A Passage to India -
journal entry 6
Although Said
criticized Forster’s novel as another example of colonial literature, a recent
turn in the criticism reveals that
A Passage to India
is not an outdated work of imperialism. Critics
of the past decade have begun to examine some of the flaws in Said’s perspective
of Forster’s novels. There are several different ways that critics are seeing
Forster through a new lens. First, although
A Passage to India
was his last published novel, Forster continued writing literature reviews, both
in print and through broadcast, for the rest of his life. Many critics are using
Forster’s own views of literature to examine his novels. Morse defends Forster’s
perspective of India through his examination of Forster’s work as a broadcaster
for the BBC Eastern Service (88-89). Forster revealed through his reviews of
Indian literature that he acknowledged a different and equal culture in the
former British colony. According to Morse, Said overlooks this fact in his
dismissal of Forster (88). Morse seems to imply that Said’s own biases prevent
him from entering the field of difference with Forster. Perhaps as a novel,
A Passage to
India, presents a limited view of Indian
culture; however, a look at Forster’s work as a broadcaster reveals that he did
value the foreign culture, although he may not have fully represent that in his
novel.
Another important change in
Forster criticism is related to the new biography,
A Great Unrecorded
History: A New Life of E.M. Forster, by Wendy
Moffat published in 2010. Although Forster’s homosexuality was not hidden
previously, Moffat views both his life and literature through this lens in her
biography and in her recent article “E.M. Forster the Unpublished ‘Scrapbook’ of
Gay History: ‘Lest We Forget Him!’”, which examines Forster’s careful record of
a canon of gay literature. Although this essay is not specifically focused on
A Passage to
India, many other critics agree with Moffat and
view the novel through this lens. Homosexuality may not be explicit in
A Passage to India,
but many critics view it as still relevant because of Forster’s relationships
with ‘Oriental’ men. In his essay Singh asserts that gender is an important
factor in Forster’s representation of Islam in the novel because the dedicatee
of the novel, Syed Ross Masood was Islamic (36). Thus, Forster’s choice to
present Islam in a more positive light than Hinduism is deeply personal and
intricately tangled with his homosexual relationship with Masood. Critics
examining the absence of homosexual desire in
A Passage to India
also compare it to Forster’s novel
Maurice,
which was not published until after his death. In “Modes of Silence in Forster’s
‘Inferior’ Fiction,” Vybarr Cregan-Reid comments that after writing
Maurice,
which he chose not to publish, Forster recognized that he could no longer
express his desire for sexual fulfillment in writing fiction because it was not
socially acceptable, but also because he had found physical expression for his
sexual desires (445). This precipitated the end of Forster’s career as a
novelist. The suppression of any homosexual desire in
A Passage to India
indicates Forster’s turning away from the genre according to Cregan-Reid.
Although homosexual desire is
not the means that Forster uses to disturb the gender binary in
A Passage to India,
the presence of homosocial relationships between men in the novel is the subject
of Praseeda Gopinath’s essay, “An Orphaned Manliness: The Pukka sahib and the
End of Empire in
A Passage to India and
Burmese Days.”
As mentioned above, the character of Fielding appears to desire a homosocial
relationship with Aziz, which Gopinath defines as “Ideas of chivalry, male
(homoerotic or otherwise) bonding, fair-play, masculine public spaces,” and
“colonial clubs” (204). The scenes in the Club represent the the homosocial
atmosphere translated to India. In addition to explaining the portrayal of
English manliness in
A Passage to India,
Gopinath undertakes an examination of the underlying difficulties of the
friendship between Fielding and Aziz. He believes, “Aziz might dress like an
Englishman, but he will never be one as he lacks the fundamental quality of an
Englishman: discipline. Aziz’s self-conscious, imperfect mimicry only serves to
highlight the difference between him and unselfconscious disciplined Englishman”
(210). His own awareness of his difference from the Englishmen make Aziz
sympathetic, but also highlight his failures to truly connect with Fielding. The
subject of this essay is very fascinating to me because I believe that this
relationship is the primary way that Forster attempts to portray
intersubjectivity between an Anglo Indian and an Indian. Perhaps because of his
homosexuality and personal experience with Masood, Forster believed that
portraying a relationship between two men was more authentic than a traditional
heterosexual romantic relationship.
Combining postcolonial, biographic, and gender criticism appears to be the current direction that Forster criticism is taking. The authors mentioned above are working toward a new perspective of colonial/postcolonial literature that seeks to understand the complexity of the motives Forster brought to his texts. Through his compilation of a gay cannon as Moffat has noted, “Forster too challenges us to see the connections between genre and gay identity in the tissue of remembrance” (29). In his writing at least, Forster sees the gender binary as complex a construction as the racial binary that he addresses in A Passage to India. The relationships of the four primary characters also demonstrate that the additional complication of breaking apart the gender binary through feminine men and masculine women, can provide a way to observe the complexity of the colonizer/colonized in India. An interesting idea for a future research project would explore how Forster portrays homosexuals as the oppressed in the hetero/homosexual binary, just as he demonstrates the oppression of women and colonized subjects in A Passage to India. Although it is clear that Forster does not provide a clear relationship of intersubjectivity between a British and an Indian person at the conclusion of the novel, he definitely explores the possibilities.
Works Cited
Cregan-Reid, Vybarr. “Modes of Silence
in Forster’s ‘Inferior’ Fiction.”
English Literature in Transition, 1880-1920
56.4, 2013: 445-461. Print.
Forster, E. M. A
Passage to India. 1924. NY: Penguin, ?. Print.
Gopinath, Praseeda. “An Orphaned
Manliness: The Pukka Sahib and the End of Empire
in A Passage to India and Burmese Days.”
Studies in the
Novel 41.2, 2009: 201-223. Print.
Moffat, Wendy. “E. M. Forster and the
Unpublished "Scrapbook" of Gay History: ‘Lest We Forget Him!’”
English Literature
in Transition 55.1, 2012: 19-31. Print.
Morse, Daniel. “Only Connecting: E. M.
Forster, Empire Broadcasting, and the Ethics of Distance.”
Journal of Modern
Literature 34.3, 2011: 87-105. Print.
Sered, Danielle. “Orientalism.” Fall
1996. n.p. Web.
Postcolonialism @Emory University.
10 Nov. 2013.
Singh, Amardeep. “Reorienting Forster:
Intimacy and Islamic Space.”
Criticism, 49.1, 2007:
35-54. Print.
The European Graduate School: Graduate
and Postgraduate Studies.
Edward Said Biography.
1997-2012.
Web. 10 Nov. 2013.
Zimmermann, Heiko, ed. emforster.de:
Aspects of E.M. Forster. Heiko Zimmermann. 1
Mar. 2000 - 10 Nov. 2013. Web. 10 Nov. 2013.
