(2016 final exam assignment) Sample Student Final Exam Essays 2016 Essay 2. Learning about Tragedy

LITR 4370 Tragedy  Model Assignments

Cassandra Parke

Tragedy: An Art of Unity

          Tragedy is unlike any other genre in that in that it depicts the entirety of the human condition, the good and the bad. According to Nietzsche in The Birth of Tragedy, tragedy is the product of dialogue between the Apolline and the Dionysiac, between aesthetic forms, and the formless will. It is also the product of the mingling of nobility and twistedness, of the beautiful and the grotesque, of enduring virtue and incomprehensible sin. Tragedians are remarkable in that they can cause these opposites to coincide seamlessly within their characters and their plots, to create a balance that is not necessarily enjoyable, but moving, haunting, and healing. Tragedy’s sublimity and poignancy stems from the fact that it is an art of unity; the characters and the audience cease to be distinct from one another due to the universal nature and cohesiveness of a tragic work.

          Tragedy evokes common fears and passions in audience members that seem to originate at humanity’s core and produce a sense of unity that is truly Dionysiac. For example, the revulsion elicited by the recognition that Jocasta is Oedipus’ mother in Oedipus the King is nearly universal, indicating that abhorrence of incest is fundamental to human nature. Through common instinct, the audience members are reminded that all humans are the same at their core, and that perhaps we are derived from a common source. This experience is exceptionally appealing to modern audience members who have been further individuated and isolated by globalization and communicative technology.

According to Nietzsche, the chorus is an integral part of tragedy, which is chiefly responsible for the Dionysiac experience. Nietzsche argues that the recession, and ultimate elimination of the chorus nullifies the Dionysiac value of tragic works. However, as seen in Racine’s Phaedra, the chorus function has survived modernization, and is absorbed into characters with whom the modern audience can relate more than they might with an abstract chorus. In Phaedra, each of the main characters is assigned a sub-character much like themselves. Aricia’s attendant, Ismene, and Hippolytus’ tutor, Theramenes, bear striking resemblances to the ones they serve. Ismene’s words are eloquent, polite and measured, much like Aricia’s. Theramenes is a loyal servant who seems to agree with his pupil throughout the narrative. Phaedra’s struggles with her incestuous desires are articulated through her conversations with the cunning Oenone.

From a psychoanalytical perspective, these sub-characters represent the id, or subconscious desires of their counterparts. Ismene draws Aricia’s attention to Hippolytus’ strange behavior, which is indicative of his affections for her. Theramenes drives the plot by encouraging Hippolytus to visit Phaedra, furthering the development of the Oedipal complex (Course \ “Oedipal Conflict” page). Finally, Oenone rationalizes Phaedra’s desires and seeks to realize them. The fact that Oenone defies and works against Phaedra demonstrates how conflicted Phaedra feels.

The expression of repressed desires is, in itself Dionysiac. Beyond that, seemingly ordinary characters like Aricia and Theramenes, and even, to some extent, the utilitarian Oenone, are easier for modern audiences to relate to. The chorus functions of narration and dialogue are absorbed by these characters, but additionally, their simple characterization allows audience members to better relate to them. Nietzsche asserts that ancient Greek audience members lost themselves in the chorus and temporarily came to see things through the chorus members’ eyes; in the same fashion, modern audience members lose themselves in the sub-characters, who serve a dual-function as both shadows of main characters, and shadows of the audience members, bringing the two together. By sort of mentally layering their consciousness over the unremarkable and familiar framework of these sub-characters, the spectator is able to move on-stage as an ordinary individual observing extraordinary events.

This phenomenon brings the spectator closer to the tragic characters, eliciting greater pity and fear, and effecting powerful catharsis, or the purgation of emotion (Poetics 11b). Because tragic works explore issues that are universal and close to human nature, the audience members mourn the misfortune of the characters, not as men or women, or people of their particular circumstances, but merely as human beings, indistinct from one another.

In addition to benefiting from a sense of unity and renewed appreciation for humanity through catharsis, audience members relate to tragic characters who possess tragic flaws (Course “Tragic Flaw” page), or else recognize and empathize with their struggles because the plot enacts mimesis, or the imitation of real life (Course “Mimesis” page). Through mimesis, tragedy is able to offer valid lessons that challenge audience members to reflect on universal, or shared issues. Tragedy has more to offer than any other genre, in that it provides both entertainment and education (Course “Dual purpose of literature” page). Because problems and faults are internalized by tragic characters, rather than transferred to some ‘other’, as in romance, the ways in which these negative aspects are addressed by characters have bearing on reality (Course “Tragedy” and “Romance” pages). Common themes in tragedy include lessons about fate, faith, justice, and hubris. For example, The Eumenides demonstrates the distinction between revenge and justice, and advises individuals to defer to the authority of the court system, rather than perpetuating the cycle of violence. Another example is the fact that Creon’s hubris and unwillingness to change in Sophocles’ Antigone dooms him.

As Kaitlin Jaschek eloquently stated in her midterm paper: “Tragedy does not allow us to “escape” our problems or feel assured that everything will always turn out for the best; instead it shows us that sometimes evil does prevail or bad things happen, but it helps us determine how we will navigate or respond to those evils”. While the world of romance and comedy may be easier to enjoy, its challenges and outcomes have little bearing on reality.

History evidences that people are united through suffering, such as in a time of war. As Dr. White mentioned in class, great tragic works frequently arise during times of hardship. The return to fundamental human instinct that tragedy brings about is especially appealing in difficult times in which individuation brings about suffering. This humbling unity, inspired by pity and fear, cuts through pride and apathy, and allows people to become receptive to learning.

          In order to develop universal lessons, tragedians must be very deliberate in their writing and develop a cohesive, unified narrative in which characters’ fates are overdetermined. Tragic works are riddled with symbolism, foreshadowing and meaningful diction that all contributes to a definite lesson. According to Aristotle’s Poetics, plot is the very soul of tragedy and characters are secondary (Poetics 6e). In tragedy, characters are instruments of the plot, while in romance, plot is often a consequence of the characters’ actions and motivations. The tragic plot itself is derived from the intended lesson. In tragedy, every word, and every action serves a dual purpose by impacting both the narrative and the lesson. For example, the discussion that takes place between Oedipus and Creon regarding the mysterious identity of King Laius’ murderer at the beginning or Oedipus the King develops their characters, but also develops Oedipus’ tragic flaw as a man clever enough to solve all problems but his own through the use of foreshadowing and irony.

          Tragedy is distinguished by its depiction of great virtue that either endures through, or is unearthed by, suffering. Aristotle believed that comedy involves the imitation of characters of “a lower-type” (Poetics V), and that tragedy imitates “noble actions, and the actions of good men” (Poetics IV). At first glance, it might appear that tragedy is divisive rather than unifying in that it is somewhat elitist by nature, frequently featuring upper-class characters and extolling lessons or morals that reflect the views of those in power (such as Oedipus at Colonus, which confirms the powers of the Gods in keeping with the interests of the priest-class, which was being challenged). However, by exhibiting the flaws and downfalls of those same upper-class characters, tragic works indicate that all humans are imperfect, and driven by the same instincts.

As tragedy becomes more modern, it also becomes more democratic and egalitarian. For example, in Desire Under the Elms, Cabot is not a warrior or a ruler like Euripides’ Theseus, but a farmer and laborer. Similarly, Abbie is an orphan, while Phaedra is a princess. These middle-class characters struggle with the same misfortunes and desires as their noble counterparts did, but are easier for the audience to connect to.

As tragedy modernizes, it also incorporates more influences from other genres. Nietzsche argues that Euripides brought about the death of tragedy, and that a mockery or ghost of tragedy lived on through comedy (specifically new attic comedy). Indeed, we see that comedy and tragedy have blended together in a manner that Nietzsche did not expect, forming dark comedy, which has become a powerful tool for the modern tragedian such as O’Neill.

O’Neill frequently uses dark comedy to prevent the reader from objectifying and distancing themselves from abhorrent concepts such as the Oedipal complex. For example, in Desire Under the Elms, when Abbie attempts to tell Eben that she murdered their child, he assumes that she is talking about Cabot. This mistaken identity is a common comedic tactic and also appears with a dark twist in Hamlet when the prince mistakes Polonius for Claudius, and kills him. O’Neill further employs dark comedy when Abbie says “But that’s what I ought t’done, hain’t it? I oughter have killed him instead. Why didn’t ye tell me?” (O’Neill 56). The understatement of the line “Why didn’t ye tell me?” has a comedic affect that is curbed by the fact that the audience is still reeling from the death of the baby. The intended result is a peculiar, sick feeling that is characteristic of O’Neill’s writing, and makes the convoluted ideologies of his characters seem less abstract, and thus more real. Dark comedy is a powerful tool through which the author can forcibly pull audience members into the reality of tragic characters.

Another observable pattern as tragedy modernizes is that spectacle becomes more prominent, but continues to be managed. According to the course website’s “Spectacle” page, spectacle is that which creates “an impressive or interesting show or entertainment for those viewing it”. It is gore, special effects, costumes, shouting, violence, and the sensational. According to Aristotle, of all of the elements of tragedy, spectacle is the least artistic, and so must be repressed or managed (Poetics 6g). In practice, this repression can involve allowing violent or shocking scenes to occur off-stage such as when Agamemnon’s murder is not witnessed, but heard, and described through Cassandra’s prophesy. This challenges audience members to invent their own details, allowing them to participate in the narrative in their own way. Again, this brings them closer to the characters, weakening the distinctions between the on-stage world and reality.

          In conclusion, tragic works are appealing because they elicit a sense of unity and appeal to human instinct. Through catharsis, the chorus function, mimesis, dark comedy, and management of spectacle, tragedy temporarily suspends the sense of self and unites the consciousness of the spectator with the reality of the characters. Although the chorus has receded, its function has been adapted to modern audiences and still powerfully draws the spectator into the work. Tragedy also offers universal lessons that remain relevant to the spectator after the conclusion of the performance. As human society develops, people become further individuated, increasingly lacking a sense of community and empathy. Over time, the Dionysiac experience exacted through tragedy becomes increasingly valuable and redeeming. In this respect, tragedy is the greatest genre.