Jane Ftacnik

26 February 2002

Shrimp, Ice, and Tents: The Genre of Exploration

     An excerpt from an article in the March 2002 edition of the Atlantic Monthly describes icebergs as follows:  “I peered through my binoculars and saw it, a white apostrophe punctuating the hazy line between sky and sea.  It looked uncommonly small-not only physically but metaphorically as well.  What was once a terror of the sea, inciting awe in landscape painters of the nineteenth century, balefully stalking shipping lanes in the twentieth, now seemed captive and defeated-designed to end up in dreamy snapshots or decanted into plastic half-liter bottles.”  This description of the icebergs is drastically different from a journal entry by an explorer in the early twentieth century.  Sir Ernest Shackleton describes looking at icebergs as “…So long had our eyes looked on icebergs that apparently grew or dwindled according to the angles at which the shadows were cast by the sun…” The icebergs mystify Shackleton, and he cannot see them clearly.  In contrast to Shackleton, the observation from the contemporary author depicts the iceberg as a commodity to be sold either in bottles or as an image on postcards.  In other words, the severe conditions of the Arctic and Antarctic have been conquered numerous times since the early expeditions of Shackleton and other explorers.  Revealed within the records of the early expeditions is information about the daily events and experiences of the explorers.  However, the explorers’ thoughts and emotions are also manifested within the field notes, journals and memoirs. This leads to the creation of a new genre of literature, called the genre of exploration.  Different genres are present in each piece of writing in the genre of exploration.    The discussion will begin with an introduction about genres and types of genres within the literature of exploration, and proceed to an analysis of four texts that include the novel Pym and three selections from the book Ice. 

     In the Bedford Glossary of Critical and Literary Terms, the word genre is defined as “from the French genre, meaning kind or type.”   It is also noted in the Glossary that “current usage permits the varieties of a given genre, such as the novel, as well as the novel in general to be legitimately denoted by the term genre.” According to the Glossary, the mixing or blending of genres was discouraged before the eighteenth century (Bedford,147).  Contemporary literary theory or criticism has asserted that the traditional way of thinking about genres has become obsolete.  Although identifying a genre may be helpful when analyzing a work, it cannot encompass all of the elements of that work(Bedford,147).  Thus, the genre of exploration crosses the boundary from science to personal reflection and narrative. 

     In order to understand the mix of genres within the genre of exploration, it is necessary to offer a brief explanation of some of the distinctions among travel and exploration literature.  This was illustrated during the presentation from Craig Sprowl on the article by MacLaren. In his research review, Sprowl states that MacLaren categorizes the text into four stages.  The first stage is called the field note or log book entry which is characterized as the first attempt of the author to put his experience into words(Sprowl, 1/22).  The second stage consists of forming the incomplete phrases and words into a coherent work(Sprowl, 1/22).  The third stage is called the “draft manuscript for a book” and finally the fourth stage is called “the publication”(Sprowl, 1/22).  The latter two stages are written with the concern of the audience in mind. Within the genre of exploration, the explorers had some idea that there would be an audience for their writings.  MacLaren’s thesis applies to some travel writing and perhaps some scientific literature, but within the genre of exploration, all four of these stages may occur at any time.

     In the novel Pym by Edgar Allan Poe, there are several examples of the blend of genres.  This is a novel and though it is a work of fiction, there are still field notes, journal entries, and narrative in it.  For example, there is a journal entry indicating the date.  Poe writes, “July 3.  Augustus furnished me with three blankets, with which I contrived a comfortable bed in my hiding-place.”  The temporal indication presents the genre of journal, but later he surmises about the condition of his dog.  Poe states, “Tiger took his station in the berth just by the aperture, and slept heavily, as if not yet entirely recovered from the effects of his sickness.”  A field note occurs when Poe writes “July 9^th.  Fine weather.”  This is an example of the field note that Maclaren defines as a choppy sentence or phrase.  But the genre of a field note occurs in the middle of a narrative within the genre of a novel.

     Another example of a different genre being present within Pym occurs when Pym is observing himself in a mirror.  As Poe describes this scene he writes, “As I viewed myself in a fragment of looking-glass which hung up in the cabin…I was so impressed with a sense of vague awe at my appearance, and at the recollection of the terrific reality which I was thus representing…”  This is a type of memoir, as Pym is expressing amazement at his reflection in the mirror.  He is surprised that at his resemblance of a corpse.  Here Pym reveals his innermost thoughts to the reader. 

     Within Pym, there is narrative present throughout the work, as it is a novel.  An example of narrative occurs when Pym is describing the ship as it fills with water.  Poe writes, “We had scarcely time to draw breath after the violence of this shock, when one of the most tremendous waves I had then ever known broke right on board of us, sweeping the companion-way clear off, bursting in the hatchways, and filling every inch of the vessel with water.”  This is narrative that propels the plot.  The description depicts the image of the ship as it fills with water, and yet this is a record of an event that occurs during the journey of Pym.  All of the examples of genres that occur within the novel of Pym demonstrate that within the literature of exploration, there is not one genre present, but many at any time during the work. 

     The next text that exemplifies the literature of exploration is an excerpt from The Worst Journey in the World by Apsley Cherry-Gerrard.  This is written with the visual cues of a journal and written accounts of the daily events on this expedition.  However, in the beginning of this excerpt is a description of a party.  A party has no scientific relevance.  As Cherry-Gerrard writes, “June 22.  Midwinter Night…Inside the hut are orgies.  We are very merry-and indeed why not? The sun turns to come back to us tonight, and such a day comes only once per year…It was a magnificent bust.”  Here is evidence of a field note along with personal observation and a description of a party.  The scientific note is blended with the personal narrative. 

     Cherry-Gerrard describes the severe conditions as he writes, “On 29 June the temperature was –50 degrees all day and there was sometimes a light breeze which was inclined to frost-bite our faces and hands. Owing to the weight of our two sledges and the bad surface our pace was not more than a slow and very heavy plod:  at our lunch camp Wilson had the heel and sole of one foot frost-bitten, and I had two big toes.  Bowers was never worried by frost-bitten feet.”  Within this brief description, the reader learns about the harsh climate and horrible medical problems that result from the climate.  Yet the last sentence is an almost humorous observation about the person named Bowers.  Cherry-Gerrard offers the reader a psychological observation of Bowers.  He is giving us a personal opinion.  This is not fact and it cannot be verified by any scientific means.  It is in the “journal” style that MacLaren describes as more “coherent.”  But through this one sentence, the reader learns that Bowers was not concerned about frost bitten feet.  This observation implies that since Cherry-Gerrard devotes a paragraph to the description of his own frost bitten feet, that Cherry-Gerrard is deeply concerned about this condition.  Cherry-Gerrard seems to be envious that Bowers is not worried about this.  This is the personal or memoir genre combined with the journal genre.

     The observation of Bowers is continued when Cherry-Gerrard explains to the reader that “that day we made 3.25 miles, and traveled 10 miles to do it.  The temperature was –66 degrees when we camped, and we were already pretty badly iced up…for me it was a very bad night:  a succession of shivering fits which I was quite unable to stop, and which took possession of my body for many minutes at a time until I thought my back would break, such was the strain placed upon it…one of my big toes was frost-bitten, but I do not know for how long.  Wilson was fairly comfortable in his smaller bag, and Bowers was snoring loudly.  The minimum temperature that night as taken under the sledge was –69 degrees and as taken on the sledge was –75 degrees.  That is a hundred and seven degrees of frost.”  Within this passage, Cherry-Gerrard observes that Bowers is sleeping so soundly that he is snoring, and Wilson was comfortable.  The reader may form the impression from the depiction of Bowers that he is not at all bothered by the conditions on this expedition.  Within the scientific confines of scientific record is a personal account of a horrible experience.  Cherry-Gerrard is emotional within this passage as he expresses his pain and suffering.  The last sentence again demonstrates a commentary from him that is not scientific, but adds to the description of the horrid conditions he is enduring.  This is the personal reflection and opinion genre presented within the genre of a journal. 

     The next selection that is representative of multiple genres present within the genre of exploration is the excerpt from Arctic Dreams by Barry Lopez.  This was written in the recent past, and it does not have the journal type entries as the other texts do.  Lopez was not pulling a sledge along in an expedition.  This excerpt mentions a few different expeditions, and different observations.  There is evidence of different genres such as a memoir, an essay, and journal.  In the beginning of the excerpt, Lopez describes the expeditions of different explorers.  As he describes the expeditions of Stefansson, he also offers an intimate glimpse of Stefansson’s character.  For example, he claims that Stefansson was “an explorer prodigious determination but not an inspiring leader.  He was a poor judge of character, he freely admitted; he could not get some of the people he employed to believe in his work; and he ignored important details in his plans.”  Lopez concludes his description of Stefansson by offering the idea that Stefansson thought the land was only to be used.  Lopez states that “The distance between the real land and Stefansson’s notions about it, or between the unpossessable land and Peary’s appropriation of it…is a generic source of trouble in our own time.  The landscape can be labeled and then manipulated.  It is possible, with insistent and impersonal technology, to deny any innate order or dignity in it.”  To those familiar with Barry Lopez, this is classic writing from Lopez.  He usually asserts a defense of the natural world.   So this is an essay about the intrusion of man upon the wilderness within the narrative of an explorer. 

     Lopez asks a rhetorical question as he queries, “What is the point at which the tragic loneliness of an individual, which drives him toward accomplishment, no longer effectively leads but confounds the well-being of the larger society?”  This is a philosophical question in the middle of an excerpt about explorers and expeditions.  He is striving to find the answer to a question about the psychological make-up of an explorer.  He describes an explorer who offers a philosophical thought as he writes about an expedition from 1929.  He observes that one of the explorers remarked, “Maybe we have lived only to be here now.”  This could be considered a spiritual remark.  Lopez is interested in the philosophical and spiritual aspects of explorations.  Yet this piece of literature still fits within the genre of exploration as Lopez is writing about what happens when people explore uninhabited lands. His writing crosses the boundary of genres as he mixes the philosophical aspects of exploration with scientific observations. 

    Lopez offers details about the land, but not the field notes that the other explorers use.   For example, he describes the land as he arrives in Alaska by stating that “…both pathways in the corridor have a manicured, unnatural stillness about them, like white-board fences running over the hills of a summer pasture.  One evening we passed a lone seed-and-fertilizing operation, spraying grass seed and nutrients on the slopes and berms of the road, to prevent erosion.  There would be no unruly tundra here.  These were the seeds of neat Kentucky grasses.”  Again, Lopez is asserting his familiar agenda within his description.  He is conveying that we humans have wreaked havoc on the natural land and we are attempting to control it by introducing a non-native plant species.  His philosophical point of view is that humans have intruded upon the land and subjected it to our whims.  The excerpt from Arctic Dreams presents within it the genres of an essay, a narrative, and the opinions of the author.

     Finally, the fourth text that presents different genres within the genre of exploration is Six Came Back by Sergeant David L. Brainard.  This piece of writing could be considered a journal, because it has the appearance of journal, as the entire piece is written as a series of journal entries.  But within it there is the field note, and also personal reflection.  For example, in the entry dated Sunday, May 25^th, Brainard describes the wind and the severe conditions as he writes, “Southeasterly wind began blowing at 10 a.m. and continued all day.  In the evening it blew a moderate gale…We buried Whisler after dinner when the storm was at its height… My God!  This life is horrible; will it never change?”  In this entry, he notes the conditions of the wind and matter-of-factly describes the death of a person.  But, also present is the emotional plea for help.  Brainard is clearly despondent about the situation.  In this paragraph, there is a field note about the weather along with an insight into Brainard’s emotional state of mind. 

     Brainard continues to describe the futility of fishing for shrimp as he writes, “I fished over seven hours for the tantalizing little shrimps and caught only two and a half pounds.  My baits are almost worthless.  What are we to do?”  He expresses his exasperation as he provides detailed description about his fishing trip.  There is a personal question within the journal entry.  Brainard is expressing frustration about the worsening situation.  Yet this is another example of the genre of exploration as there is a blend of science with personal reflection. 

     In his last entry, Brainard begins with the date of June 21^st, and states, “Our summer solstice! The wind is still blowing a gale from the south.  Temperature 7 a.m. 31 degrees; minimum recorded 28 degrees.”  Brainard records the event that occurs when the sun is furthest from the equator, and he uses an exclamation point.  That simple punctuation mark implies that he is excited about this event.  In these few sentences, there is the field note, or MacLaren’s stage one of exploration writing, and also a journal entry.  The brevity of the description of the temperature is indicative of the field note, but the complete sentence about the wind indicates a coherent thought which implies more than a mere field note.  But also present is the mix of science with personal opinion because of the punctuation mark. 

     All four selections within the genre of exploration demonstrate that there are different genres present within the genre of exploration.  There is also a combination of science and personal opinion within the genre of exploration.  As an exception to the other explorers, Lopez did not have to pull a sledge and fight the elements, but he expresses his discontent with the view that the Arctic land is solely for the use of humans.  Alone, cold, and hungry, the early explorers released their emotions by using the only means available to them.  Thus, ever-present in the field notes and journal entries are their private thoughts.

Works Cited

Murfin, Ross.  The Bedford Glossary of Critical and Literary Terms. New York:  Bedford Books.  1997.

Poe, Edgar Allan.  The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket and Related Tales. Great Britain:  Cox and Wyman LTD.  1998

Sprowl, Craig.  Research Review of I.S. MacLaren’s Exploration/Travel Literature and the Evolution of the Author.  Presented in class on January, 22, 2002. 

Willis, Clint.  Ice:  Stories of Survival From Polar Exploration.  New York:  Thunder’s Mouth Press.  1999.