LITR 5734: Colonial & Postcolonial Literature

Sample Student Midterm 2005

Pauline Chapman

2 Oct. 2005

Characters, Cultures, and Intentions in Colonial and Postcolonial Literature

Most Americans would assume colonial and postcolonial literature refers to the American colonial period.  Because of this, when asked what class I'm taking this semester, after the title I always add, "the literature of Africa, India, and the Caribbean, from the point of view of the Europeans and of the native people."  Last semester one of my clients wanted to know if I were studying American or British Literature.  This question made me pause, but it is not surprising that she would assume such a narrow possibility, since the study of literature in the West has been traditionally European and American and slow to change.  The importance of this course is to bring an isolated American audience greater awareness of literature, cultures, and events in other parts of the world.

When discussing colonial and postcolonial literature, one of the first things that needs to be established is that we are discussing Literature—established literary works of art that have been discussed purely on the basis of their formal elements.  Just because we might actually learn something of social value from them as we examine them from within context does not mean they are any less works of art.  Topics that might be of interest would be the author's culture and cultural biases, language, intentions, character portrayal, audience, location of the story and history of the region, and readers' responses. 

Colonial literature is written from the perspective of writers from imperialistic nations who went into underdeveloped regions of the world and colonized them with missionaries, settlers, government, business ventures, or a combination of these.  In their 2003 essays Bevill incorrectly identifies Great Britain as the colonizer in Heart of Darkness and Davis only credits the British Empire for colonialism, but Belgium, France, Spain, Portugal, and the Netherlands were also colonizing nations.  The 19^th century and early 20^th century was the high point for colonialism and colonial literature. Colonial writers are not necessarily supporters of this system. What they can bring to the discussion is an insider's view of the imperialists--their greed, prejudices, fears, pettiness, arrogance, and attitude of entitlement.

Heart of Darkness, written by Joseph Conrad and published in 1902, in the height of the colonial period, is an example of colonial literature in novel form.  Conrad's English narrator journeys into the Belgian colonized Congo and relates impressions of the colonizers, the natives, and the setting.  It is an indictment of colonialism, which the author called "the vilest scramble for loot that ever disfigured the history of human conscience and geographical exploration" (Conrad 187).

The novel is primarily about the Europeans and how Africa affects them and what they do to the natives. The characters are employed in ivory commerce for a Belgian company, and include steamer captains, such as our narrator, Marlowe, an accountant, managers, and "pilgrims."  It is clear he was not impressed with the Europeans, from the top of the organization to the bottom. Marlowe witnesses much that is absurd, futile, frustrating, and monstrous in their behavior.  Some of Conrad's best work is in the sketches of the minor characters and the circumstances in which Marlowe finds himself leading up to finding Kurtz.  For example, the company's chief accountant holds onto his civilization by a thread, literally, maintaining his appearance with the help of a native woman whom he teaches to clean and press his clothes. His fastidiousness contrasted with the suffering, disease, and death of the natives is appalling. The general manager of the Central Station's best qualification for promotion is that he has a strong constitution and hasn't got sick and died.  The brickmaker hangs around doing nothing because he doesn't have the material to make bricks.  There are many waiting for their opportunity to make money from the ivory or hoping to advance in the company, all the while engaged in internal petty competition and rumors.  Meanwhile Marlowe has to deal with the frustration and absurdity of receiving materials he doesn't need while not being able to get rivets to fix his steamer.  The whole business brought out the worst in people, or attracted the worst kind of people.  Those who had begun the journey with enthusiastic, fairly benign intentions, such as Marlowe, in the end were at least disillusioned, if not mad, sick, or dead.   Marlowe is gets more disgusted and disheartened as he progresses, and this is why he becomes obsessed with the idea of Kurtz, someone who he hoped could make sense of it all.

The character of Kurtz is often made into a universal symbol, but for this discussion he is looked at for what the author intended within the colonial context.  The example of Kurtz could be a warning to any Europeans who had grand ideas about what could be accomplished with Africa.  Conrad shows that even those with incredible talent and charisma are not immune to corrupting influences in the absence of civilization, the cop on the corner, for example.  He connects Kurtz with the "powers that be," the Belgians safe at home who direct and promote the company, enlisting young men to risk their lives venturing to Africa for profit.  The difference with Kurtz is that he goes to Africa and faces the reality that most promoters would never face.   For this, Marlowe respects him.  Marlow's respect is not intended as encouragement, however.  Marlowe is the witness and Kurtz is the example that Conrad hopes will convince others not to follow.

The natives are more of a backdrop for Conrad.  Their portrayal is filtered through an imperialist perspective, somewhat sympathetic, but not respectful.  Conrad as Marlowe still doesn't consider them equal.  As characters they function as objects to pity or fear.  Or, like the helmsman, as useful tools.  Showing them overworked, starving, and dying elicits compassion for them and disapproval for the system.  Many of the other native portrayals seem intended to scare the reader--the ones who want to eat the others in the jungle, those throwing spears at the boat, and the natives dancing and chanting. They and their land were characterized as mysterious, impenetrable, inexorable, and incomprehensible.  Marlowe's continual use of hyperbole to describe Africa and Africans hammers home the message that Europeans should stay away for their physical and moral good.  Kurtz gets closer to the natives than anyone, but in the end, he too confirms the judgment against them.

According to The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism, "the designation "postcolonial" has been used to describe writing and reading practices grounded in colonial experience occurring outside of Europe but as a consequence of European expansion and exploitation of "other" worlds" (Groden 582).  Postcolonial literature dates from after World War II and is written from the perspective of the colonized. It can show the conflict of the intrusion of the white man on their society, so it is their story from their point of view, in their voice.  It is "the slow, painful, and highly complex means of fighting one's way into European-made history, in other words, a process of dialogue and necessary correction" (Groden 582).

Chinua Achebe's essay on racism in Heart of Darkness is a direct response to Conrad's attitude towards Africans in the novel.  There was reluctance in our class to label Conrad a racist, but Conrad was a product of his society and times.  That doesn't make him or it right, but it makes him less culpable in 1900 than he would be in 2000.  If we give Conrad some excuse for racism it does not mean we should gloss over it in the story, because attitudes of superiority justified colonialism. In her 2003 essay, Lisa James shows how white men embraced  the theory of evolution to confirm their superiority over those they considered less advanced.  Achebe does a very good job of identifying racist portrayals of Africans, but he also doesn't give Conrad any credit for his indictments of Europeans, citing them as "bleeding heart sentiments" and "humane views appropriate to the English liberal tradition" (Achebe 256).  I was disappointed that perhaps Conrad wasn't being as courageous in his anti-colonialist stand as I hoped.  Achebe also addresses the excuse that the story is about Europeans, and not Africans.  It is insulting and dehumanizing that Africa is portrayed as too dangerously devoid of morality and civilization for European contact.  I would agree with the class that Achebe's essay is harsh, but it is past time for a closer scrutiny of this novel and the attitudes surrounding it.  It is still worth studying in class, but within the context of colonialism. 

In Things Fall Apart, the Nigerian author Achebe adopts the traditionally European art form of the novel for his response.  Writing in English reinforces the dialogue concept—that he is responding to decades of misinformed or under informed European writers on the subject of African culture. 

Postcolonial literature records and celebrates traditional cultures, showing that there was a viable culture in place with laws, language, rituals, religion, before the white man imposed his. This is the backdrop of Achebe's story.  While Conrad set up his story showing civilization in decline, Achebe starts his story showing African civilization in stability.  He introduces the reader to the organization of homes and family life, music, crops, a system of titles that encourages men to achieve, a monetary system, laws and ways to settle disputes. We witness a prenuptial ceremony, a sporting event in the wrestling contests, and the hospitality and respect of sharing the kola nut.  Where Conrad barely gives his natives intelligible speech, Achebe's people speak in proverbs.  We see people counseling, advising, and supporting each other as Obierika does with Onkonkwo. Parents protect, nurture, and guide their children.  Even though his machismo prevents him from expressing it, we understand the tenderness Onkonkwo feels for Enzinma.

Even as he introduces his culture as viable and legitimate, Achebe does not romanticize it. Indeed his story is a tragedy with a heavily flawed African main character.  Onkonkwo's inflexibility and drive for success are universally identifiable.  However, Western women in particular can have difficulty seeing beyond the violence of the wife beating and the killing of Ikemefuna.  One would wonder why there is so much violence in a story intended to show that Africans are not savages.  The effect of Achebe being unflinchingly open and honest is that he gains credibility. Also, considering his African audience, Achebe is showing them not only their cultural history of which they could be proud, but also attitudes and practices that have brought them down or should be changed.  Achebe is a hybrid of sorts, an African educated by mission schools and the European university system.  He seems to acknowledge that both sides have something to offer and something to change.  Another thing to remember is that we are judging the culture through our cultural bias.  Who is to say their behavior is wrong?  This forces us to consider our assumptions. Achebe's style is very straightforward, presenting facts or situations with little judgment, requiring the reader to reflect.

After Achebe illustrates African Ibo culture, he then shows how Europeans appeared to the Africans.  Marlow is perplexed by the  Africans, but the Africans  are also confused by European behavior.  They don't know how to act—what is considered wrong by the white man and what sort of punishment might be exacted.  The Africans live by following their traditional laws and the white man comes in and flouts them.  The reader can see how unfair this would be, seeing it through their eyes.  But we also see Africans who are bothered by some of the harsh traditions, who may have secretly questioned them on their own, converting to Christianity. 

Derek Walcott is a postcolonial poet also writing in English.  He is a true hybrid in that he has both European and African ancestors.  A recurring theme in his poetry is the struggle to come to terms with both sides of his heritage.  His is a moderating voice in the dialogue of texts because of his reluctance to choose sides, to proclaim the white man evil, in particular, descendants like himself.  Although he contemplates history in the ruins of a plantation house in "The Ruins of a Great House," and  "A Far Cry from Africa," he is essentially wanting to know where to go from there.  The sense at the end of his poems, is that he is acknowledging the wrongs, but moving on, finding a sort of balance or peace in acceptance.   Michael made the point in class that writers in Walcott's situation have the obligation to add their voice to the dialogue since they have a unique perspective. 

Colonial and postcolonial literature students see the impact of literature on culture and culture on literature, across time and national borders.  It forces us to examine our assumptions and adjust our perspectives.  Readers come to realize that multiple voices are necessary to make the story whole.