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LITR / CRCL 5734: Colonial &
Postcolonial Literature Carolyn Richard Introduction In the beginning I thought I would take a stance for finding the Romantic or naturalistic voice in postcolonial literature. As things progressed however, I began to whittle away at the images I saw and compare them to the voice I heard. My project became one grounded in ecocritism. I intend to outline the emergence of an ecocritical voice in postcolonial texts. As I was reading Chinua Achebe’s novel Things Fall Apart, I was intrigued by the images in nature and how they were represented in such a wonderfully realistic and spiritual manner. I could tell that Achebe had an affinity for the way nature works through man. However, as I searched for reviews on his work, I was disheartened to discover that no one picked up on this idea. Arundhati Roy’s novel God of Small Things did not quite present nature in the same way as Achebe’s novel, but her descriptions of the river as a living entity satisfied the naturalist in my soul. I was pleased when I discovered that she was considered to be an ecological activist. The title character of the novel Lucy by Jamaica Kincaid seemed distanced from the natural world. However, I subsequently discovered that Kincaid herself is an avid gardener. Once I noted how each novelist or novel was connected to the natural world, I began to wonder how colonization affected ecology. In my subsequent research I discovered the term “ecocritism” and began turning my search in that direction. In this journal, I have reviewed one article that discusses dominant ideologies and their ecological effect. I have also reviewed one article that calls for a clearer picture of ecocritism. I then discussed the article “Ecological Imperialism” by Alfred W. Crosby. In looking at possible postcolonial text that concerns ecology, I reviewed two articles by Roy concerning choices the Indian government has made that has or could affect ecology in India. In my conclusion, I will sum up what I have learned from this research and how it may be useful to me in other aspects. Review of: Toward an Echoing Green: From Hegemony to
Eco-affiliation http://landow.stg.brown.edu/post/poldiscourse/maiti/7.html This article pinpoints major false assumptions that have been made by the hegemony of the dominant ideologies currently in place, and shows how the world’s ecology has been adversely affected. It also suggests a change in point of view to reverse some of the damage and prevent further injury to our ecosystem. Maiti begins with a brief historical description of dominant ideologies. He suggests that as technology became more predominant, nature and humanity became marginalized. When these dominant ideologies became colonizers, they brought with them the idea that nature could be managed, falsely believing that this does not affect human life. The article goes on to explain some of the ecological effects that have resulted. The expansionist attitude of the dominant ideology has caused immense deforestation has produced a depletion of the ozone layer, affecting world weather patterns. Further technological advances have also caused irreparable damage to land, air and water. The author differentiates between neoclassical and ecological economists. Neoclassical economists pay homage to the technology they believe produces material resources, forgetting that natural resources are the basis for all material resources. They see the world through the eyes of expansionism and economics, resisting the ideas of ecological economics. To sustain the natural world as well as socio-political and cultural tenets, the ecological economist struggles for a paradigm shift from “an industrial interpretation of nature to a more ecologically based conception of nature.” Maiti concludes by promoting the involvement of “indigenous people” in the development of a new hegemony. He asserts that their traditions have brought about a specialized knowledge of ecology in their native lands. Review of: Ecocriticism, Literary Theory, and the Truth of Ecology Dana Phillips New Literary History 30.3 (1999) 577-602 This article begins with the bold statement that what passes for ecology is sometimes a lie. The author then goes on to use the San Diego zoo to illustrate his point. With this as a platform to distinguish truth from reality, Phillips goes on to discuss the problems with current ecocritical discourse and questions how ecology is addressed by nature literature and the reliability of this literature to invoke the truth. Phillips outlines how ecocritics are anti-theoretical and calls them reactionary. He states that others feel this discourse could well chronicle a return to social responsibility and activism. Ecocritics say there is a gulf between nature and culture, so critical theory is counterproductive in trying to represent an ecocritcal discourse. Phillips counters with the idea that because nature is complex and implicated in culture, discovering the truth in ecology could be difficult. Phillips also says that ecocritism cannot be defined in terms of literary realism because realism is grounded in the artificial world. Phillips maintains that by ignoring the recent history of ecology and asserting that nature is being represented in a more true fashion that it actually has been, ecocritics are gaining a hollow victory. The author sites John Elder’s Imagining the Earth as an example, saying it is faulty on scientific and literary grounds. To further support his assertions, Phillips analyzes Lawrence Buell’s The Environmental Imagination. Buell does consider some theory in his argument, but his definition of ecocriticism does not allow room for theory. He defines ecocriticism as “the study of the relation between literature and environment conducted in a spirit of commitment to environmental praxis.” Phillips complains that this may place ecocriticism in the role of “academic agitprop. Phillips concludes by saying ecocriticism needs to use both literary theory and the rationale of Buell’s definition. Review: Ecological
Imperialism Alfred W. Crosby PCSR page 418 In this article Crosby recounts how the creation of Neo-Europes has resulted in an abundance of agricultural productivity. He points out how ludicrous it is to have massive amounts of the world’s population dependent upon food grown in two-thirds of the Temperate Zone. This becomes especially apparent when the preponderance of widespread erosion and diminishing fertility are realized. This article raises the issue of countries becoming less independent on imported foods. In this era of portending ecological disasters, it has become apparent that countries need to localize their resources. This has not been realized an agrarian scale, but with the Gulf War it became increasingly more obvious on an energy scale. While we are not quite scrambling to look for alternate sources of energy, there has been a rise in companies developing potential new energy sources. The question is how many nations are going to be able to take this lesson, not quite learned, and apply it to the area of agriculture? There are countries where the climate is not suitable to grow many foodstuffs and so they must depend on their imports. Should these countries continue to rely on imports, or should they develop crops that can be grown in their region? Also, how is this to be funded? These questions make one realize just how much we all depend on each other in terms of world economics. Review: “The End of
Imagination” http://past.thenation.com/issue/980928/0928AROY.HTM Arundhati Roy In this article, Arundhati Roy berates both the U.S. and Indian governments for their role in bringing nuclear arms to her country. She discusses not only the ecological effects, but points out the irony of the Indian government declaring that the people want nuclear weapons when a majority of the people don’t understand their destructive force. Roy counters the claim that nuclear weapons are a deterrence to war with the notion that we can’t totally understand the psychology of the enemy and that if deterrence is premised on fear, then fear is based on knowledge. However, in a country where a majority of the people are illiterate, there is no knowledge base so the people have no idea what to fear. Roy continues by asserting the possibility of the Indian government using anti-bomb rhetoric as a means to assert the speaker’s anti-national feelings. She points out the irony of the “pro-authenticity/anti-national drive” of a government who denies the existence of the tribal people, the original Indians who were not Hindu. The author relates that three official reasons the government gives for building nuclear weapons – China, Pakistan, exposing Western hypocrisy – and then debunks them. Roy points out that although there is tension with China and Pakistan, the last wars were decades ago and any problems that still exist cannot be solved by nuclear armament. In fact, a nuclear war with Pakistan would result in the radioactive contamination of parts of India. Roy then laughs at the government’s assertions that they want to expose Western hypocrisy, claiming that not only is it exposed, but is bragged about. She also takes the Indian government to task for sleeping with the enemy. Roy also says the government’s assertions that the bomb is going to make India more Indian is ridiculous. She points out all the ways other cultures have changed India, and says the bomb is just another Western idea embraced by the government. Roy concludes by showing how India has become a hypocrite embracing the ideals of the dominant ideology. Review:
“The Greater Common Good” http://www.narmada.org/gcg/gcg.html Arundhati Roy This article is the result of the thorough research that Roy completed on the dam project and its effect on the people of India. She gives a brief description of damn building in India, shows how the government misleads the people of India, shows the effect of displacing people, and discusses the efforts of the Narmada Bachao Andolan to stop the dam project. Roy states that there are 3600 big dams. Of these 3300 were built after 1947. As she wrote the article, one thousand dams were under construction. Despite this 200 million people without potable water and 600 million people had no basic sanitation. Although the Indian government says the dams are being built to provide irrigation, flood-control and power production, there are still no plans to provide drinking water to distant rural outposts. Also, these three elements cannot work together since they cancel each other out. Many indigenous people were once able to live off the land. Since they have been relocated, this is not possible. Estimates of how many people have been displaced range from 33 to 50 million. Yet, the government has no rehabilitation plan for these people. An independent study called the Morse Report reveals the cozy relationship between the Indian State and the World Bank, and says the project is flawed in terms of humanity. The Indian government claims that the damns are in the national interest and for the common good. However, they have no idea how many people have been hurt by the dam project. Roy says the government keeps statistics on food production, but not people problems. She also asserts that the government’s way of collecting authority is by deciding who gets water and how much, then berates them for inflated and adjusted figures concerning how many people would have use of the water. Finally Roy discusses the efforts of Narmada Bachao Andolan to stop the dam project or protect the people. She calls for more people to get involved to protect the interests of India and its people. Conclusion I was somewhat disheartened by the lack of discourse concerning postcolonial texts and ecology. It seems that Maiti would also agree that this theme has been lacking. Phillips’ assertion that the field of ecocriticism needs to be defined more clearly is evident. However, this field is wide open for authors and critics who feel that dominant ideology have severely affected the ecology of their homeland. By looking at the texts in pairs, it becomes apparent that a call for ecocriticism as well as ecological economy is well in order. When Maiti is juxtaposed with the Roy articles, it becomes apparent that what was once a crime of the colonizer has become the crime of the colonized. The dominant ideology has pervaded the mind of the ruling party in India causing it to break the bond in cultural ties with its people. When Phillips is juxtaposed with Roy’s articles, the problems and possibilities in ecocriticism become apparent, as does the postcolonial world of ecology. Roy’s text shows the environmental concern that Philips addresses in the end of his article. She deftly bridges the gulf between culture and nature by taking for the people as well as for nature. In considering the implications in Crosby’s article, Maiti is given new fuel to add to the fire. Crosby shows just how the neoclassical economies have placed the world food supply in jeopardy. This journal has caused me to consider adding ecological and postcolonial literature to the material that my students read. It has also given me ideas for research journals that they might complete. Also, I have gained a new interest in world economics and ecology. My further studies may include these topics as seen in a postmodern world. I have recently decided to work more intently on professional publishing. In working on my journal, I noted places where articles in this field were in some demand. I am in hopes that my studies lead me to having a voice in the fields of ecocriticism, postmodern and postcolonial literature, and world ecology.
Dear Carolyn, Your lament over the shortage of eco-critical literature
strikes near the heart of several issues. The problem may be best identified by
the complaint by Phillips's dismissal of Buell's approach as "academic
agitprop," but it was also identified by Lucy's identification of
ecological concerns with lives of privilege like Mariah's. In short, the whole
issue seems bound up in class issues, and such issues seem so resistant to
negotiation. In order to care about such global and long-term issues as ecology,
one probably needs a certain level of comfort with the world, a sense that there
is something to lose beyond one's next meal or paycheck. If you're interested in teaching materials on this
subject, a book I used in Literature of the Future this summer proved very
accessible: Future Primitive: The New
Ecotopias, ed. Kim Stanley Robinson (Tor). It has an extensive bibliography
of non-fiction and fiction sources. Alas, most of these sources don't correlate
with post-colonial literature. Most are "national," since folks can
get whipped up about national resources or national-natural beauty, or they are
so deep into the future that the idea of globalism is far removed from
postcolonialism. Even finding a shortage was a good quest for you to take. The journal had a fairly high number of proofreading or editing errors. On the last line of the journal you finally spell ecocriticism right--most of the rest of the way through it appears as ecocritism. P. S. I later remembered one quite "global" text that effectively traces the ecological crisis back to colonialism and to Judeo-Christian religion: Frederick Turner, Beyond Geography (Rutgers UP reprint 1992).
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