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LITR / CRCL 5734: Colonial &
Postcolonial Literature Sylvia
Krzmarzick Journal Introduction:
This Journal begins with a review of the article “Post-colonial
Literatures and Counter Discourse.” My
initial reaction to this article is grounded in an interest in the topics of
hybridization and universals that appear to be prevalent in colonial and
post-colonial literature. A review
of a comprehensive website that is focused solely on colonial and post-colonial
discourse, literature, and historical issues follows.
My
interest in Joseph Conrad is centered around understanding what brought him to
the Congo and how the events that transpired there influenced his attitudes in Heart
of Darkness. I also wanted to
gain a greater understanding of the historical events that led to the
colonization of the Congo. This
interest is basically grounded in the fact that prior to my exposure to Heart
of Darkness and Things Fall Apart, I knew virtually nothing about
what actually led to the colonization of the area.
It is my hope that through researching these areas I will have a deeper
understanding of the two novels that focused on the Congo. Review
of “Post-colonial Literatures and Counter-discourse”
In the article, “Post-colonial Literatures and Counter-discourse,”
Helen Tiffin raises a number of issues in regards to the hybridization of the
colonized and how European universals invariably clash with that of the native.
From the very beginning of the article, Tiffin notes that there is a
“call to arms” (so to speak) that encompasses the “demand for an entirely
new or wholly recovered ‘reality,’ free from all colonial taint” (95).
This hope is idealistic, especially when evaluating the role that the
English language plays in the lives of those who are colonized.
Tiffin realizes this fact and views most post-colonial literature as a
“counter-discursive” mode of expression that is highly involved in
“challenging the notion of literary universality” (96).
The most interesting challenge raised by this European universality is
the fact that many post-colonial authors use English as the means to express or
disassemble notions of these supposed commonly held mores, thereby creating a
hybridized literature. Tiffin notes
that in a “canonical counter-discourse . . . [the] post-colonial writer . .
.takes . . . basic assumptions of a British canonical text and unveils those
assumptions” (97). This is
clearly seen in Things Fall Apart where Chinua Achebe creates an
environment that fully explores Ibo culture and often draws parallels between
the European “universals” and the native traditions.
By composing the novel in this way, Achebe succeeds in (as Tiffin so
eloquently notes) deconstructing “assumptions from the cross-cultural
standpoint of the imperially subjectified ‘local’” (98).
In other words, a hybrid
voice evolves in a way that can be aligned with a distinct Minority Literature
theme: by dismantling universal European values and using the English language
to do so the colonized people are using the dominant cultures words and/or
values against them to not only pick apart these values, but to hold a mirror up
to what has been lost by the native people of a particular land.
There is, however, a likelihood that there will be some level of recovery
that begins to take place for the native as a result of this discourse, which is
not addressed in Tiffin’s article. Hopefully,
through the hybrid that is created by these institutions, post-colonial
literature can serve as a tool to give those who are colonized a voice in which
to, not only express the obliteration of their traditional cultures, but also to
begin a healing process whereby they can rebuild and preserve as much tradition
as possible under the circumstances. Tiffin,
Helen. “Post-colonial Literatures
and Counter-discourse.” The Post-colonial Studies Reader. Ed. Bill
Ascroft et. al. London: Routledge, 1995. 95-98. Website
Review: Contemporary Post-colonial and
Post-imperial Literature in English
This website, created by George P. Landow of Brown University, serves as
a comprehensive research tool that includes a startling number of articles,
themes, and histories in reference to colonialism and post-colonialism.
Not only are historical overviews available for virtually every nation
colonized by the English, there are also sections available where students can
research the various political situations, religions, and terms associated with
colonialism and post-colonialism. Furthermore,
themes such as hybridity, orientalism, and orality are discussed in multiple
articles. For example, the section
on hybridity offers twelve papers on the topic.
Even though many of the papers are written by students, my review of the
website found that the various analysis’ were articulate, well-written, and
well-documented. While this could
be viewed as a negative facet of the site, Landow also includes writings from
the faculty of universities from around the world and full bibliographies are
available for each contribution. Finally,
a researcher can also perform research based on a particular country or author.
For Chinua Achebe alone there sixteen various themes or concepts that can
be explored. Under each theme,
several articles or papers are available that relate in some way to Achebe’s
works. Other than papers by
students comprising much of the website, the shear magnitude of information
available makes this site a must for those performing research on the internet
about colonialism or post-colonialism. Landow,
George P. Post-colonial and
Post-imperial Literature in English. 1995 http://landow.stg.brown.edu/post/misc/postov.html accessed
15 June 2001. Historical
event: Early Colonization of the Congo
To gain a greater understanding of Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness
and Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart a awareness of the historical
backdrop of the Congo is necessary. Populations
along the central Congo basin can be traced back from the middle of the Stone
Age and by around A. D. 100, the area became increasingly settled because of the
ability to farm yams, bananas and harvest palm oil.
Trading between the various tribes in the area became more common.
The website, “History of the Republic of Congo” notes that the
population growth and increase in trade played a large role in the
“increasingly complex social and political organization among those peoples
who dwelt in the savannas.”
These societies had complex social structures that typically were
clan-like in nature, and those in the rain forest area around the Congo River
either formed fairly large “chiefdoms” or remained somewhat socially
“fragmented” (History). Conversely, the southern savannah had actual monarchies that
were hierarchal in nature. These
areas were divided into provinces that had local appointed chieftains that
served as liaisons between the central monarchy and local villages.
It should be noted, however, that variations existed within each of these
structures.
Things began to change rapidly for the future Congolese in the late
1800s. Competition between the
Portuguese, Dutch, English, French, and Arabs over the lucrative slave trade in
Africa quickly caused the swift decline of tribal life for the natives.
The monarchies also suffered rapid decline due to the horrible
instability wrought by the colonizers. Even
though the Civil War put an end to the slave trade towards the end of the
century, the Arab nations continued these practices.
At the height of the slave trade “15,000 slaves a year were sent out of
the lower Congo river area” (History). The
natives were further decimated due to internal conflicts and civil wars.
This constant social upheaval resulted in the Congolese being an easy
target for upcoming Belgian conquest.
The devastation caused by the slave trade was not the only factor that
radically changed the life of the natives.
Booker T. Washington notes that after King Leopold of Belguim declared
(and received the endorsement from other European nations) the Congo a free
state under his rule, a drastic change occurred with “the social status of the
native and his relation to the soil”. All
areas that were not populated were declared “property of the state” and
“it became a crime for [the native] to gather . . . rubber and ivory”
(Washington). Even though the
natives were supposed to be free, they were unable to support themselves
economically and were forced to be victims of the “ruthless and massive . . .
exploitation of African labor” (History).
King Leopold’s “agents” were directed to use as much force needed
to plunder the Congo’s resources. Unfortunately,
some of these “agents” were natives who were given guns to apparently kill
enemies of the Congo Free State. Those
same enemies tended to be enemies of the agent.
Along with the innumerable atrocities being heaped upon the Congolese was
what has been described as “Belgium Paternalism” (History).
This “meant that basic political rights could be withheld indefinitely
from Africans as long as their material and spiritual needs were properly met”
(History). Much of this policy
dealt with Christianity in its various forms and resulted in a type of cultural
decimation. However, political
tyrannies were also justified in this way.
Many natives were even forced to grow food for the colonizers and not
themselves.
Even though the Congo Free State ended in in 1908, the Congolese were
unable to even elect local councils until 1957.
The ramifications of this colonization are still felt today.
The far reaching consequences were seen by Booker T. Washington in 1904: One
of the most unfortunate results of this methods of dealing with the African is
the heritage of misunderstanding, mutual distrust, and race hatred that it
inevitably leaves behind it. This
alone . . . will render fruitless for many years to come every effort to bring
the great mass of the natives under the better and higher influences of our
Christian civilization. While
Washington is expressing the same ethnocentrism in regards to religion that the
colonizers do, he is quick to point out an issue that is still dominant.
Time has yet to heal the fact that the colonized Congolese lost many of
their cultural traditions, social and political structures, and in many cases
they lost their lives. History
of Republic of Congo. http://www.emulateme.com/history/zaihist.htm accessed 27
June 2001. Washington,
Booker T. “Cruetly in the Congo Country.” The Outlook 78 (Oct. 8, 1904).
http://www.boondocksnet.com/congo/congo_washington041008.html accessed
1 July 2001. Biographical
Report: Joseph Conrad
Jozef Teodor Konrad Nalecz Korzeniowski or Joseph Conrad was
born in Poland in 1857 shortly after the Crimean War. His father, Apollo Korzeniowski was a “poet and an
ardent Polish patriot” who was eventually exiled to northern Russia for his
role in fighting against Russian rule (Encyclopedia Britannica). His wife Eva followed with the four-year-old Conrad.
Unfortunately, Eva’s health rapidly declined and she died in 1865 after
contracting tuberculosis. Tragically, his father faced the same fate and passed away in
1869. Conrad was then sent to live
with an uncle throughout the rest of his adolescence.
His childhood can be described as quite tumultuous despite the fact that
he apparently was able to develop a strong relationship with his uncle, whose
liberal ideas had a great impact on young Conrad.
Described as “a very highly strung youth,” Conrad left Poland at the
age of nineteen to avoid “being conscripted for service in the Russian army“
and became an apprentice sailor in Marseilles (Biography).
This event marked the beginning of travels for Conrad that took him from
the Carribean to the Pacific. While
he mastered the French language during this period, it was his landing in
England in 1878 that marked his lifelong romance with the English language. Conrad capitalized on his twenty some odd years at sea by
using his various exploits as the backdrops for his over fifty various works.
While Conrad traveled widely and wrote about a myriad of exotic lands
around the world, it was his time in the Congo that served as the setting of Heart
of Darkness. The Congo had
apparently been the object of fascination for Conrad since childhood.
He made note of this attraction in A Personal Record when
recalling an incident that took place around the age of nine: .
. . while looking at a map of Africa of the time and putting my finger on the on
the blank space then representing the continent, I said to myself with absolute
assurance and amazing audacity . . . “When I grow up I shall go there.” qtd.
in Meyer 94 According
to biographer Frederick Karl, during the months leading up to Conrad’s journey
into the Congo he began the first pages of Allmeyer’s Folly.
However, he was also trying to gain command of his own vessel.
Even though he dreamt of this journey from childhood, “the African
venture was by no means inevitable” (Karl 274).
After applying for many positions that were headed for different
destinations all over the world, Conrad finally gained the command of a steamer
bound for the Congo after the previous captain unexpectedly died. (Karl)
Through evaluating Conrad’s diary and various correspondences, it
becomes clear that The Heart of Darkness most likely depicts some of
Conrad’s true feelings at a raw time. However,
it must be noted that he transformed and elevated this period in his life into
high fiction. At times he himself
appeared to be exposed and almost gutted open by the voyage into the Congo, and
thus was able to transfer much of this experience into the short novel.
In one letter he passionately stated, “ Everything here is repellent to
me. Men and things, but above all men” (Karl 294).
At the same time however, the majority of the actual journal contained
disjointed and decidedly ‘unliterary’ descriptions of the landscape he
encountered. For example he
describes “Another broad flat valley with a deep ravine through the center”
(Karl 290). He also made brief,
detached note of dead bodies that were encountered on the long hike to his
vessel, and would quite often have notations that were one word sentences:
“Mosquitos” (Karl 291). This is
hardly the same vivid, reflective language used in Heart of Darkness.
It should also be noted that while there are discrepancies between the
novel and his journal (Karl is quick to point these instances out in the
biography), there are also similarities. For
example, Conrad’s visit to the company’s office before the voyage and the
deplorable condition of the ship were all depicted in his journal in striking
detail.
Perhaps the most interesting facet of Conrad’s journey into the Congo
is that is seemed to have paved the way for the end of his sea-faring days and
the beginning of his career as a writer. The manager of the station in the
Congo, Camille Decommune, and Conrad did not get along at all.
Therefore, Conrad’s hopes in regards to advancing his naval career were
dashed. He was also plagued with bouts of dysentery.
In one correspondence he “suggests that either someone will find reason
to discharge him or another attack of dysentery will send him ‘to another
world . . .’” (Karl 295). At thirty- three years of age, it seemed that Conrad’s
lifelong career was coming to an end. During
the voyage Conrad did, however, complete six chapters of Almayer’s Folly.
After his treck into the Congo, Conrad’s health was never the same and
even though he made a few more voyages, “in 1894 . . . his sea life was
over” (Encyclopedia Britannica). However,
in that same year he sent Almayer’s Folly to a publisher.
After its acceptance, Conrad’s literary career was solidified. One could say that Conrad’s time in the Congo turned him
into a writer. However, as Karl
notes, “it was only one ingredient” (300).
It was also his lifelong tragedies and travels that assisted in his
ability to compose vivid fiction. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. “Conrad, Joseph Encyclopedia Britannica Article.” http:/authorsdirectory.com/cgi-bin/search2000/authorsdirectory.cgi?id=35093.
accessed 14 June 2001. Karl,
Frederick R. Joseph Conrad The Three Lives. New York: Farrar, Straus and
Giroux, 1979. Meyer,
Bernard C., M. D. Joseph Conrad A Psychoanalytic Biography. Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1967. Wilson’s
Web Biographies. “Conrad, Joseph Dec. 3, 1857-Aug. 3, 1924.” 1996
Biography from World Authors 1900-1950. http://p26688.uhcl.edu:2071/cgi-bin/webspirs.cgi?sp.usernumber.p=599729&url=yes&sp.nextform=show1rec.htm&sp.dbid.p=S(XC)&SP.URL.P=I(XCZ9)J(0000019715)&.
accessed 14 June 2001. Conclusion:
Overall, my research for this journal yielded several surprises and new
interests. I also wish that I had more time to explore different
avenues. However, the time
constraints prohibited me from reading and learning as much as I would have
liked.
The Tiffin article, “Post-colonial Literatures and
Counter-discourse,” was a favorite over the semester as it seemed that
universalism and hybridity were
constant themes. What interested me
is that both the colonial and post-colonial texts dealt with these concepts.
In Heart of Darkness, the reader can see European universals
heaped on the native is a startling fashion.
The natives have no voice, and even though it is difficult to see where
they hybrid issue would come into play with them, Kurtz represents a hybridized
colonizer to some degree. In Things
Fall Apart, Achebe was quick to point out how the native cultures share many
European universals. However, they
are tweaked for the Ibo culture, which creates a hybrid.
In Passage to India, the voice of the colonized people is heard
through Aziz. He gets “touched by
Western feeling” every so often (57). And
even Mrs. Moore seems to represent a hybridized European.
However, the action is played out in terms of European universals or
‘manners,’ which makes the work all the more fascinating.
The language alone in Roy’s text seems to set her work apart from the
others. However, Christianity
serves as a European universal throughout the novel and the issues raised serve
as an ‘extreme’ version of a hybrid text.
Basically, these themes are seen in each text and would make for an
interesting extensive research project, especially if the focus was on how the
dialogue between the colonized and colonizer is evaluated in terms of how the
actual universals seem to morph into a hybrid of their own.
I found myself returning to the website, “Contemporary Post-colonial
and Post-imperial Literature in English,” repeatedly throughout the semester
to get clarification on various concepts. The
sections on nationalism, universality, hybrid, and gender provided ‘at a
glance’ information. However, it
was the histories that proved the most helpful.
Unfortunately, my knowledge of history in general is sorely lacking and I
found that it benefited me to better understand the historical context of each
novel.
What shocked me most about the colonization of the Congo was the shear
magnitude of devastation to the native cultural and political structures.
While I am sure that this would be true of most (if not all) colonized
nations, learning about it in some detail is startling and sobering.
When I pursue my graduate degree I believe that it will be essential to
have a greater understanding of the historical context of whatever period of
literature that I study. Having
that knowledge enables me to read a text with an understanding that is simply
not feasible without a solid backdrop to place it against.
The biography of Joseph Conrad yielded the most surprising results of all
of my research. I chose to focus on
his trek to the Congo and expected to find that Heart of Darkness was
highly biographical. Instead, I
found that the opposite was true. Even
though he used some real life events, those events were used as a tool to
magnify and fictionalize the experience. Furthermore,
I never realized that virtually all of his works were composed after his days at
sea were over. I had assumed
that he was already an author with a solid and successful writing career.
Finally, I think that I would enjoy reading and researching a complete
biography of Conrad as opposed to focusing on this specific period in his life. His A Personal Record seems like it would provide
incite into an extraordinary author that led an exciting life.
Bibliography
of Conrad’s Works Almayer’s
Folly,
1895. An
Outcast of the Islands,
1896. The
Nigger of the “Narcissus,”
1897. Tales
of Unrest,
1898. (contents: :The Idiots,” 1896; “Karain,” 1897; “The Lagoon,”
1897; “An Outpost of Progress,” 1897; “The Return,” 1898). Lord
Jim, a Tale,
1900. The
Inheritors, an Extravagant Story,
with Ford Madox Hueffer, 1901. Youth,
a Narrative, and Two Other Stories,
1902 (contents: “Youth,” 1898; “Heart of Darkness,” 1899; “The End of
the Tether,” 1902). Typhoon,
1902. Typhoon
and Other Stories,
1903 (contents: “Amy Foster,” 1901; Typhoon,” 1902; “To-Morrow,” 1902;
“Falk,” 1903). Romance,
with Ford Madox Hueffer, 1903. Nostromo,
A Tale of the Seaboard,
1904. The
Mirror of the Sea, Memories and Impressions
1906. The
Secret Agent, a Simple Tale,
1907. A
Set of Six,
1908 (contents: “An Anarchist,” 1906; “The Brute,” 1906; “Gaspar
Ruiz,” 1906; “The Informer,” 1906; “The Duel,” 1908; “Il Conde,”
1908). A
Personal Record.
Also known as Some Reminiscences, 1908, 1912. Under
Western Eyes,
a Novel, 1911. Twixt
Land and Sea,
Tales, 1912 (contents: “The Secret Sharer,” 1910, “A smile of Fortune,”
1911; “Freya of the Seven Isles,” 1912). Chance,
a Tale in Two Parts, 1913 One
Day More,
a Play in One Act, 1913 (adaptation of “To-Morrow”). Victory,
an Island Tale, 1915. Within
the Tides,
1915 (contents: “The Partner,” 1911; “The Inn of the Two Witches,” 1913;
“Because of the Dollars,” 1914;
“The Planter of Malata,” 1914). The
Shadow-Line, a Confession,
1917. The
Arrow of Gold,
a Story Between two Notes, 1919. The
Rescue: A Romance of the Shallows,
1920. Notes
on Life and Letters,
1921. The
Secret Agent,
Drama in Four Acts, 1921 (adaptation of the novel). The
Rover,
1923. Laughing
Anne,
a Play, 1923 (adaptation of “Because of the Dollars”). The
Nature of a Crime,
With Ford Madox Hueffer, 1924 (written in 1908). Suspense,
a Napoleonic Novel, 1925 (incomplete). Tales
of Hearsay,
1925 (contents: “The Black Mate,” 1908; “Prince Roman,” 1911; “The
Tale,” 1917; “The Warriors Soul,” 1917). Last
Essays,
1926. The Sisters, 1928 (written in 1896, incomplete). Dear
Sylvia, This is a well-conceived and well-written journal, and I felt moved by its promises of further research. The adventure you're beginning, especially in learning the history behind or within the literature, is one I too began with Conrad, who forces one to get out maps and look up names. Your descriptions of the precolonial Congo and the effects of colonization are especially good--both impassioned and precise, which is a great combination in historical writing. It was also good to revisit "hybridization" and think how many terms and possibilities this course makes available--as long as someone like you is out there ready to pounce.
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