LITR 5731: Seminar in
American Multicultural Literature
Student Research Project
Karen Hrametz
JOURNAL:
Giving Voice to the Voiceless
INTRODUCTION:
In 1772, Phyllis Wheatley, 19, was summoned before a panel of distinguished Boston men who were charged with determining whether Phyllis was indeed capable of composing the poetry she claimed as her own. Surely, they thought, no young Negro girl could possibly have the intellect to compose such work. She stood before a panel that included the governor, lieutenant governor, and seven pastors. She patiently answered their questions, perhaps related to the Latin instruction she had claimed, or to the poetry that she professed to enjoy. Whatever the questions, Phyllis answered satisfactorily and the authorship of her poems was authenticated. With the subsequent publication of Poems on Various Subjects, the American minority literary movement began.
Wheatley’s publishing success helped to open the door for other minority writers to follow. However, until the Harlem Renaissance of the early 20th century, few minority writers were able to penetrate the white-, male-dominated world of publishing. Those who did usually had assistance from white acquaintances that recognized their talents and worked arduously to overcome the prejudice and repression that kept the minority voice silent. This is the story of a selection of extraordinary men and women who, like Wheatley’s supporters, made personal, political, and professional sacrifices to give voice to the American minority. While their stories are unique, they do share one commonality: the willingness to, as Lydia M. Child wrote, “do what is necessary to “enlarge and strengthen the hand of human brotherhood."
(Unitarian Universal Historian Society, n.d.)
Lydia Maria Child 1802-1880
“Over the river and through the wood
to Grandmother’s house we go…”
Children have sung the familiar Thanksgiving song for over a century without a thought of the extraordinary accomplishments of the woman who penned those simple lines. Similarly, readers of Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, the narrative biography of Linda Jacobs, may not notice the name of the author who wrote the introduction, but without Lydia Maria Child, Jacobs’ story would not have been told. Little known today, Child was a prolific author, editor, scholar, journalist, and activist.
Maria, as she preferred to be called, was one of seven children of Susannah and Convers Francis, a successful Massachusetts executive. When Maria’s mother died, her father sent her to live with her older sister in Maine, where she helped with household chores and continued her education. Her visit to a nearby Penobscot settlement sparked a life-long interest in Native American culture, which would prove to be the subject of her first novel. Hobomok: A Tale of Early Times, 1824, was the first historical novel published in America. It related the romantic story of a colonial girl, who, fearing her fiancé lost at sea, became involved with a Native American, Hobomok. She lived with him in his village, and bore him a son. Much to her surprise, her fiancé returned and Hobomok encouraged her to continue in her plans to marry her English lover. The novel was a first because it was sympathetic to Native Americans, who were commonly believed to be savages. The novel was an instant success, making Maria a celebrity at age 22.
Maria enjoyed financial success through her writing and the editing of one of the first children’s magazines, The Juvenile Miscellany. However, the 1831 publication of an abolitionist newspaper, the Liberator, proved to be the start of a new direction in Maria’s life, as she wrote that it “got hold of the strings of my conscience, and pulled me into Reforms…Old dreams vanished, old associates departed, and all things became new” (XXX). Maria’s literary career was endangered as her participation in abolition increased. Well aware of the risks she was taking, Maria wrote, “though I expect ridicule and censure, it is not in my nature to fear them.” Maria’s 1833 publication of the anti-slavery document Favor of That Class of Americans Called Africans left her nearly penniless, but is said to have won many converts to abolition long before Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin.
Maria continued to work tirelessly for the causes she endorsed, which
included suffrage, and she continued to write. After the Civil War, Maria worked
to help former slaves transition to their freedom, and when she could afford it,
she gave generously to help others. Her literary contributions included fifty
books, numerous short stories, poems, articles, and newspapers, yet she is
probably best known for a simple children’s poem.
Daniel A. P. Murray 1852-1925
"The true
test of the progress of a people is to be found in their literature"
(Library of Congress website, n.d.)
In 1881, Daniel A. P. Murray, 29, became the second African-American to hold a professional position at the Library of Congress. As Assistant Librarian, Murray, the son of a freed slave, was asked to compile a collection of written materials by black authors for an exhibition at the 1900 Paris Exposition. After seeking donations from the public, Murray collected over eleven hundred titles, including personal stories from former slaves. His collection became Library of Congress’ “Colored Authors Collection,” which spans a 150-year time period, and includes works by Frederick Douglass, Ida B. Wells, and Booker T. Washington. Murray continued to build his collection throughout his life, with the intention of publishing an encyclopedia of African-American achievements, but was unable to secure sufficient funding for the project. Murray, a prolific author, contributed frequently to journals related to African-American interests. He was considered an expert on African-American issues, and testified before congress on Jim Crow laws and the migration of African-Americans from rural to urban areas. He served as a delegate to the Republican National Convention, and was the first African-American member of the Washington Board of Trade.
Murray’s considerable personal library of African-American works was bequeathed to the Library of Congress upon his death, serving to chronicle the early African-American experience. Documents include biographies, slave narratives, poetry, legal documents, and dramas. Researchers have noted some common themes among the documents: 1) the desire to gain respect and equality with whites through cultural achievements, 2) the urgency of defending the constitutional rights of African Americans (along with the necessity of blacks to obey the law), 3) the choice between assimilation or emigration for former slaves, and 4) concern for the discord between whites and blacks in the south. Murray’s collection is still available for review at the Library of Congress.
Charles
Eastman (Ohiyesa)
“Every age, every race, has its leaders and heroes…The names and deeds of some of these men will live in American history, yet in the true sense they are unknown, because misunderstood.”
Ohiyesa was born a Woodland Sioux, and was originally named Pitiful Last One because his mother died shortly after giving birth to him. His father, Many Lightnings, was among 300 warriors who were captured by the U. S. Army and subsequently sentenced to death by hanging. The family, not knowing that Many Lightnings had been pardoned and then imprisoned by President Lincoln, took refuge with relatives in Manitoba, Canada. Ohiyesa was raised in the traditional Sioux manner until his father returned from prison twelve years later. Ohiyesa was promptly baptized and renamed Charles Alexander Eastman. Shortly after, the family relocated to a Christianized Dakota settlement in Iowa.
Eastman began attending the Indian Normal School, where his aptitude for language was noted; before long, Eastman was interpreting between Sioux and English. When time came for college, Eastman wanted to pursue a career that would allow him to serve the Sioux; he chose medicine. He received his bachelor’s degree from Dartmouth College in New Hampshire, which had originally been founded as an Indian school. Upon graduation, he was considered an expert on Indian culture, spoke five languages, and was an accomplished speaker and writer. With high hopes that Eastman would greatly benefit his people, money was raised for him to attend Boston University Medical School.
Eastman was unique among his people, for was raised in the traditional manner. As a physician, he encountered prejudice from whites who didn’t believe that an Indian could be intellectually able to earn a physician’s license, therefore he was forced to move his family frequently to remain employed. He and his wife were powerful lobbyists for the Sioux, and were well known but not particularly popular because they were seen as troublemakers. Together, they tirelessly championed the rights of Native Americans.
In need of employment, Eastman was forced to take jobs that were far below his training and ability. On one of his jobs, he met Zitkala-Sha, who encouraged Eastman to write. He took her advice, and wrote many books, including an autobiography and several children’s books. Circumstances did not allow Eastman to serve his people through his chosen career, but his writing gave voice to them in a far-reaching and lasting manner.
Helen Hunt Jackson 1830-1885
"I have done now, I believe, the last of the things I have said I
would never do. I have become what I have said a thousand
times was the most odious thing in the world - a woman with a cause.”
(Colorado Women’s Hall of Fame website)
Helen Hunt Jackson was born in Amherst, Massachusetts, the daughter of strict, scholarly parents. As a child, she was said to have had a strong, high-spirited temperament, characteristics which would serve her well in the tragic times to come. Her mother died of tuberculosis when Helen was 12 years old, and she lost her father three years later. At 21, she married a West Point graduate, with whom she quickly had two sons. The first son died in infancy, and her husband was killed during the Civil War, while he was working on a one-man submarine that he invented. Her second son died four years later from diphtheria. Helen, mentally and physically drained, relocated to Colorado in search of the healing of Rocky Mountain fresh air. Once settled, she began to write for therapy and financial support.
Helen kept in touch with her close childhood friend, Emily Dickinson, and traveled home to Massachusetts often. On one of her trips east, she met a Ponca Chief, Standing Bear, who told her of the many tragedies that had befallen his people. Helen promised to raise funds to help the Ponca return to their land, not realizing the social ramifications of supporting a Native American cause. Nevertheless, Helen kept her promise, writing A Century of Dishonor, making her one of the first authors to bring attention to the sufferings of Native Americans.
Helen continued to write, eventually becoming one of the most celebrated writers of her day. Along with Emily Dickinson, she counted among her friends Ralph Waldo Emerson and Oliver Wendell Holmes.
Juan Seguin 1806-1890
“A victim to the wickedness of a few men, whose
imposture was favored by their origin, and recent
domination over the country; a
foreigner in my native land;
could I be expected stoically to endure their outrages and insults?”
(Weber)
Juan Seguin was born into a well-known tejano family in San Antonio. Sequin’s father was a staunch supporter of Stephen F. Austin, and like father, like son – Juan fought against Santa Anna’s army. As military commander of San Antonio, he was at the Alamo in 1835, but escaped death because he was sent for reinforcements shortly before the fighting began. Later, Seguin helped to defeat Santa Anna’s army in the battle of San Jacinto.
Seguin served in the Texas senate, where he supported the printing of laws and documents in Spanish. He served two terms as mayor of San Antonio, but after the Texas Revolution, many Anglos moved to expel tejano residents. Even after Seguin helped defeat a Mexican attack on San Antonio in 1842, many Anglos still supported his expulsion. Sequin’s troubles further escalated when the Mexican commander falsely reported that Seguin was loyal to Mexico, causing vigilantes to force him to flee for safety. Once in Mexico, he was arrested and given the choice of serving in the army or facing imprisonment; he chose to join the army, and fought in the Mexican-American war, this time against the United States. After the war ended, he was permitted to return to Texas, but finding that he was unwelcome, he returned once again to Mexico. In 1958, Seguin published his memoirs. His remains are buried in the Texas town that bears his name, a small community near San Antonio.
Although he did not publish other than his memoirs, his story symbolizes the struggle Mexican Americans face as they search for understanding of their identity; undoubtedly, Sequin’s story is the story of his people.
Oprah Winfrey
“If you look at the last 25 years and ask what had
the largest impact in
increasing
readership in America, the answer is Oprah Winfrey.”
(Milwaukee Journal Sentinel)
No discussion concerning “giving voice to the voiceless” would be complete without mention of Oprah Winfrey. With a captive audience of 7 million viewers daily and a desire to support authors of well-written books, Oprah began recommending her favorite books. The impact, dubbed the “Oprah Effect” has resulted in millions of book sales.
Books chosen by Winfrey skyrocket to the top of sales lists, and more impressively, stay there for long periods. Thanks to Winfrey’s endorsement, Barbara Kingsolver’s “Poisonwood Bible” rose to the top of the best-seller list, and stayed there for 137 weeks. Seven of the top 10 books recommended by Winfrey were written by women; most of the writers on the list were previously unknown. Winfrey’s picks have included works by minority writers such as Toni Morrison, Maya Angelou, Gabriel Garcia Marquez, and Isabel Allende. While these authors were well known before Winfrey’s support, they undoubtedly benefited from her endorsement through increased book sales, and, in the case of Morrison and Angelou, frequent guest appearances on the show.
Conclusion:
The individuals discussed here are but a few of those who helped to build a foundation for American minority literature. While their stories are unique, several recurring themes are apparent. Lydia Marie Child’s story reflects her understanding of the difficulties minority writers often face to be published. Daniel A. P. Murray certainly understood that a people’s culture is reflected in their stories, which are to be treasured and preserved for future generations. Similarly, Charles Eastman worked tirelessly to preserve his Sioux culture. While Juan Seguin did not produce literature in the usual sense of the word, his memoirs did speak to the ambiguity he felt as “a stranger in his native land.” His story has long been a symbol for the struggle of Mexican-Americans, and is said to be the inspiration for many Mexican-American writers. All of the pioneers discussed here surely knew that to be “different” in America meant that success would be a little harder to achieve. Through their personal, professional, and personal sacrifices, they helped to bring voice to the American minority, and for their efforts, our literature is beginning to reflect the rich multiculturalism of our country.
Works Cited
Bruchach, J. Transcription of chat session. Retrieved April 14, 2006 from <http://www.wordsmith.org/chat/bruchac.html>
Colorado Women’s Hall of Fame. “Helen Hunt Jackson” Retrieved April 19, 2006 from <http://www.cogreatwomen.org/jackson.htm>
Foreigners in Their Native Land: Historical Roots of the Mexican Americans. Contributors: David J. Weber - editor. Publisher: University of New Mexico Press. Place of Publication: Albuquerque. Publication Year: 1973. Page Number: vi.
Karttunen, Frances. Between Worlds: Interpreters, Guides, and Survivors. New <Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1994>
Library of Congress website. African-American Perspectives: The Daniel. A. P. Murray Pamphlet Collection. Retrieved April 17 from <http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aap/aaphome.html>
Ohiyesha (Dr. Charles Alexander Eastman). Retrieved April 19, 2006, from <http://www.indians.org/welker/ohiyesa.htm>
PBS website. “Africans in America: Phyllis Wheatley.” Retrieved April 22, from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part2/2p12.html
Sharma-Jensen, Geeta. “Oprah’s club helped open minds.” Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, April 14, 2002. Retrieved online April 20, 2006 from
< http://www2.jsonline.com/enter/books/apr02/34549.asp>
Texas State
Library and Archives Division. “Juan
Seguin”. Retrieved April 19, 2006 from <http://www.tsl.state.tx.us/treasures/giants/seguin/seguin-01.html>