LITR 5731: Seminar in
American Minority Literature
University of Houston-Clear Lake,
fall 2001
Student Research Project
Tara Edwards
LITR 5731—Seminar in American Minority Literature
Dr. Craig White
4 December 2001
The
Dangers of Revealing Educational Levels
among
Characters in African American Literature
Education has a profound personal and professional impact on individuals;
it is often understood as the key to individuals understanding themselves with
respect to the world in which they live, thus gaining the ability to participate
most fully in society. The lack of education oppresses individuals while a high
level of education can create its own unique sense of oppression and isolation.
The dynamics involved in educational levels can create dangerous situations for
individuals. Whether it is hiding an educational level that is truly higher or
lower than is revealed, characters in the Classic Slaves Narratives as
well as in the more contemporary work Push face various forms of danger
in disclosing their true educational level.
The denial of education is demonstrated frequently in the Classic
Slave Narratives as a method of oppression. Education is understood well as
providing potential for the escape of slaves as well as being a threat to the
control of slaves. In the most direct reasoning, slave education provides the
means for activities such as forging documentation (for example, false passes
from masters) allowing the escape of slaves (Sharpe 2). In her narrative,
"Incidents in the Life of a Salve Girl," in the Class Slave
Narratives, Linda Brent does use her education directly to aide her escape
from slavery by sending letters from various places in order to create
uncertainty about her location (Gates 457). Letters are used against Linda as
well, however, in her escape when her owner, Dr. Flint, sends a letter as a trap
designed to encourage her to return. Linda receives this letter, supposedly
written by Emily’s younger brother, begging Linda to come home. Her literacy
allows her to recognize the true author as Dr. Flint. The danger Linda faces
through revealing her education is evident in that it is used against her
through letters that are meant as a trap to ensure her return to her owners.
The issue of slave education goes much
deeper, however, than the fear of education being used as a way of escape:
"Ignorance was the major control instrument of slavery. Every master
realized that he had to know almost everything, and the slaves had to know
almost nothing. An educated Black might realize how horrible he was treated and
revolt" (Erickson 1-2). Allowing slaves access to education is thought by
many to undermine severely the slaves’ submission to slavery, thus education
among slaves is treated very carefully in the dominant, white society.
Even if slaves are not punished directly by
their owners for education, the slaves face problems from society at large for
their education. Those of the dominant, white society collectively ensure that
education is denied to slaves. Linda Brent describes a raid of the slave
quarters in "Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl." When slave
quarters are searched by outsiders, signs of education, such as finding books,
cause intense danger for the slaves, such as Linda experiences:
When their captain
informed them of their contents, they seemed much disappointed. He inquired of
me who wrote them. I told him it was one of my friends. ‘Can you read them?’
he asked. When I told him I could, he swore, and raved, and tore the paper into
bits. ‘Bring me all your letters!’ said he, in a commanding tone. I told him
I had none. ‘Don’t be afraid,’ he continued, in an insinuating way.
‘Bring them all to me. Nobody shall do you any harm.’ Seeing I did not move
to obey him, his pleasant tone changed to oaths and threats."
He inquires as to who writes to her, and she
replies, "’…most of my letters are from white people. Some request me
to burn them after they are read, and some I destroy after reading’"
(Gates 395). It is only an unexpected distraction, an exclamation of surprise,
which ends the situation.
Such caution is taken towards salve education
that laws are enacted to prevent slave education and to specify the punishment
of violators of these laws. Laws against the education of slaves are enacted as
a result of understanding that voices must be silenced in order to maintain
control of slaves. Withholding education is one way to ensure that silence is
maintained:
…[V]arious laws
existed in the nineteenth century to silence slaves, to attempt to deny them a
legal, political, or literary voice. They could not testify against a whiter
person or serve on a jury. They could not vote, run for office, or petition the
government. They generally were barred from learning, teaching or practicing
reading and writing. Free blacks were denied many of these rights as well. While
slavery’s defenders asserted that the enslaved were happy, they also were
determined not to let these slaves say a public word, whether in a courtroom,
ballot box, or novel. The official line on slavery declared that slaves had no
subjectivity to speak of, yet there was tremendous anxiety that there be no
public arena where such a subjectivity might somehow speak. (Accomando 4).
There are specific laws recorded as to the
forbiddance and penalties regarding educating slaves as well as employing slaves
in any capacity that used their education:
South Carolina
adopted the first compulsory ignorance law in America in 1740: And whereas the
having of slaves taught to write, or suffering them to be employed in writing,
may be attended with great inconveniences: Be it enacted that all and every
persons whatsoever, who shall hereafter teach, or shall use of employ any slave
as a scribe in any manner of writing whatsoever, hereafter taught to write,
every such person or personas shall, for each offence, forfeit the sum of one
hundred pounds current money. (Erickson 2).
Ironically, any knowledge that slaves as well
as free blacks reveal is in itself proof that laws have been broken. Revealing
any level of education is dangerous because education in itself is illegal among
slaves.
When Uncle Fred, an old, black man, begs
Linda Brent to teach him to read, the state law which they are under (North
Carolina) specifies different penalties for teaching blacks to read depending
upon the race and condition (slave or a free black) of the lawbreaker: "Any
free person who shall teach any slave to read or write upon conviction shall if
a white man or woman, be fined not less than 100 dollars, nor more than 200
dollars, or imprisoned; and if a free person of colour, shall be fined,
imprisoned or whipped, not exceeding 39 lashes, nor less than 20. And for a
similar offense, a slave shall receive 39 lashes on his or her bare back" (Accomando
5). Much can be deduced from these lines in terms of who faces the greatest
danger related to teaching slaves:
As with so many
laws under slavery, there is a specific breakdown along lines of color and
condition. Status determines how much money the offender would lose, but race
determines whether physical integrity could also be violated. A free black could
be treated as harshly as a white (subject to fine or imprisonment) or as harshly
as a slave (up to thirty-nine lashes) Only a slave, however, has the bodily
details so specified: Unlike the amount of the fine, the number of lashes and
the bareness of the back are not left to the court’s discretion" (Accomando
5).
Despite the laws forbidding education and the risks involved in breaking
such laws, Linda Brent in the Classic Slave Narratives understands the
impact of education, and so wants to pass the opportunity for literacy on to
others. She agrees to teach Uncle Fred to read, but only after ensuring he
understands the danger: "I asked him if he didn’t know it was contrary to
law; and that slaves were whipped and imprisoned for teaching each other to
read. This brought tears into his eyes (Gates 401). Linda continues by saying,
"‘Don’t be troubled, uncle Fred….I have no thoughts of refusing to
teach you. I only told you of the law, that you might know the danger, and be on
your guard’" (Gates 401). Fred’s response to the situation is
"’Honey, it ‘pears when I can read dis good book I shall be nearer to
God. White man is got all de sense. He can larn easy. It ain’t easy for old
black man like me. I only wants to read dis book, dat I may know how to live;
den I hab no fear ‘bout dying’" (Gates 401).
The oppression of slaves by withholding
education and the danger slaves face in revealing their educational level is
demonstrated through the Aulds in their treatment of Fredrick Douglass in the Classic
Slave Narratives. Fredrick Douglass initially is taught to read by Mrs.
Auld. Not long into their work, however, Mr. Auld discovers the educational work
and insists that it stop because, ‘"It would forever unfit him to be a
slave. He would at once become unmanageable, and of no value to his master. As
to himself, it could do him no good, but a great deal of harm. It would make him
discontented and unhappy’" (Gates 274-275). This resistance comes through
complex reasoning and social pressures:
Auld’s rhetoric
belies the extent to which he has embraced the ‘literacy myth’ and
strong-text assumptions about literacy. For Auld believes that literacy will
mean social and cognitive disengagement for Douglas, thereby rendering him
useless and unhappy to himself and his owners. This belief includes Auld’s
inability to conceive of Douglass living outside the social context of slavery.
If Douglass learns to read, not only might he run away, ‘he’ll be running
away with himself’ (Royer 6).
Because of the great danger involved in
slaves obtaining educational opportunities, Fredrick Douglass is forced to
obtain his education secretly, and at great danger to himself. Once Mrs. Auld
stops teaching him, she becomes as fierce as her husband in ensuring that
Fredrick Douglass not have access to education. Fredrick Douglass is amazed at
Mrs. Auld’s transition to refusing to teach him and the new danger he faces in
revealing his educational progress: "Nothing seemed to make her more angry
than to see me with a newspaper. She seemed to think that here lay the danger. I
have had her rush at me with a face made all up of fury, and snatch from me a
newspaper, in a manner that fully revealed her apprehension. She was an apt
woman; and a little experience soon demonstrated, to her satisfaction, that
education and slavery were incompatible with each other" (Gates 277).
Linda Brent is another slave who is initially
taught to read and write by her mistress. Linda understands immediately the
value of literacy, and is appreciative of such knowledge. Understanding the
value of literacy with respect to her slave status also means understanding the
need for caution in disclosing her literacy. Although he does not directly
punish her for her education, Linda’s education is not so openly welcomed by
her owner, Dr. Flint. He treats her education with caution while participating
in her education to some degree by writing her letters. The letter exchange
becomes a game between Linda and Dr. Flint. Linda initially denies her education
while Dr. Flint knows she can read: "One day he caught me teaching myself
to write. He frowned, as if he was not well pleased; but I suppose he came to
the conclusion that such an accomplishment might help to advance his favorite
scheme. Before long, notes were often slipped into my hand. I would return them,
saying, ‘I can’t read them, sir.’ ‘Can’t you?’ he replied; ‘then I
must read them to you.’ He always finished reading by asking ‘Do you
understand?’" (Gates 364).
Education poses particular problems for Linda
Brent as a female slave as she experiences sexual harassment from her owner
through the letters he knows she can read: "Her ability to read makes her
vulnerable to her master’s verbal harassment because he begins pressing his
immoral attentions on her through lewd notes, which she pretends not to be able
to read. Later, when he believes she has escaped to the North, and when, in
fact, she has, Linda’s master continues to harass her through letters,
sometimes threatening her and other times attempting to lure her into returning
to him" (Riemer 7-8). It is because of Dr. Flint’s knowledge that Linda
can read that Linda is placed at risk by intense harassment through letters from
Dr. Flint.
Although Dr. Flint participates in Linda’s
literacy by writing her letters, he is aware of the implications of literacy.
Linda knows her literacy puts her in danger even by her owner because, "He
knew that I could write, though he failed to make me read his letters; and he
was now troubled lest I should exchange letters with another man" (Gates
372). Dr. Flint understands that education allows communication, and that
limiting education is one way to limit slaves’ access to each other in that
without education there is no written communication with each other. Dr. Flint
cannot revoke Linda’s education, so he uses it against her to harass her.
Given the great sense of danger in revealing
their educational levels, many slaves are forced to obtain their education by
secretive means. When Mrs. Auld no longer teaches Fredrick Douglass, and is even
fiercely against his education, the danger increases for Fredrick Douglass in
obtaining educational opportunities. He has to be increasingly secretive.
Fredrick Douglas must "sneak" study time while he is assigned to run
errands. "Sneaking" such time is a risk in itself, but there is also
great risk in enlisting the help of teachers. He develops a plan to enlist the
help of white children: "The plan which I adopted, and the only one by
which I was most successful, was that of making friends of all the little white
boys whom I met in the street. As many of these as I could, I converted into
teachers. With their kindly aid, obtained at different times and in different
places, I finally succeeded in learning to read. When I was sent of errands, I
always took my book with me, and going one part of my errand quickly, I found
time to get a lesson before my return" (Gates 277-278).
The danger in assisting slaves in obtaining
education is so great that Fredrick Douglass does not give the names of the boys
who help him even after they are well into adulthood. Following the description
of the boys’ assistance, Douglas says, "I am strongly tempted to give the
names of two or three of those little boys, as a testimonial of the gratitude
and affection I bear them; but prudence forbids;--not that it would injure me,
but it might embarrass them; for it is almost an unpardonable offence to teach a
slave to read in this Christian country" (Gates 278). Fredrick Douglas is
so convinced of the necessity of not giving names that he doesn’t just
discretely omit their names, but he specifically addresses that he doesn’t
give their names due to at least potential embarrassment for them.
Fredrick Douglass continues learning the
alphabet in Durgin and Bailey’s shipyard. He discovers the timber is marked
based on the section of the ship for which the wood is intended—S.F indicates
starboard side forward, L.F. indicates labored side forward, and so on (Gates
280-281). Once he learns several letters, he begins tricking young boys into
teaching him other letters. The danger in enlisting the help of young boys has
become so great that he cannot be direct in enlisting such help After writing
the letters he knows, Fredrick Douglass discretely challenges the boys to write
additional letters as a type of game, thus learning those additional letters
(Gates 281). During this time, Fredrick Douglass must continue to
"sneak" study time while his mistress is at class meetings every
Monday afternoon at the Wild Street meeting-house. Fredrick Douglass uses that
time to write in the spaces left in Master Thomas’s, the young boy of the
family, copy-book, copying what is written by young Thomas (Gates 281). Fredrick
Douglass succeeds in learning to write only through great risk and
resourcefulness in covertly obtaining supplies, teachers, and study time.
In addition to individual education, many
slaves take the risk of developing educational opportunities as a community.
Sabbath schools often provide the potential for underground schools for slaves
to learn under the pretense of religious instruction. Further education,
however, is provided in some cases at great risk to all involved. These Sabbath
schools are in constant danger of being discovered. In many cases, such as that
seen in the narrative of Fredrick Douglass, Sabbath schools provide a secret
source of slave education: "The potential for literacy training was ignored
by Sabbath schools at first, reading was considered to be purely a religious
activity. Turner’s Rebellion in 1831 threw such a scare in to the population
that the District excluded Backs from Sabbath schools after that" (Erickson
2). Fredrick Douglas mentions these Sabbath schools: "While I lived with my
master in St. Michael’s, there was a white young man, a Mr. Wilson, who
proposed to keep a Sabbath school for the instruction of such slaves as might be
disposed to learn to read the New Testament. We met but three times, when Mr.
West and Mr. Fairbanks, both class leaders, with many others, came upon us with
sticks and other missiles, drove us off, and forbade us to meet again. Thus
ended our little Sabbath school in the pious town of St. Michael’s"
(Gates 288).
This incident of slave education under the
pretense of a Sabbath school starts with two slaves of Mr. Freeland. Fredrick
Douglass instills in these slaves a strong desire to learn. That desire spreads
to other slaves who, with some spelling books, insist on being taught to read
under the pretense of a Sabbath school. Fredrick Douglass mentions the risk in
these schools: "It was understood, among all who came, that there must be
as little display about it as possible. It was necessary to keep our religious
masters at St. Michael’s unacquainted with the fact, that instead of spending
the Sabbath in wrestling, boxing, and drinking whiskey, we were trying to learn
how to read the will of God; for they had much rather see us engaged in those
degrading sports, than to see us behaving like intellectual, moral, and
accountable beings" (Gates 304). These slaves gather despite the fact that
"Every moment they spent in that school, they were liable to be taken up,
and given thirty-nine lashes" (Gates 304).
The Sabbath school is broken up, however,
when Wright Fairbanks and Garrison West rush the school with sticks and stones
one day (Gates 304). The violence with which these schools are stopped shows the
danger to the slaves and how threatening education among slaves is to the white
owners. The danger is so great to the slaves that Fredrick Douglass refuses to
give the name of the slave whose home is used for the Sabbath school even though
the situation occurs many years prior to Fredrick Douglas writing about the
experience: "I held my Sabbath School at the home of a free colored man,
whose name I deem it imprudent to mention; for should it be known, it might
embarrass him greatly, though the crime of holding the school was committed ten
years ago" (Gates 304).
The slave narratives deal with education in a
private and intimate setting. Slaves are often educated in homes and under very
secretive ways due to the great risks involved for the slaves and their
teachers. In the more contemporary work Push, the setting is a large
public school where students tend to get lost among the large numbers. In the
setting faced by Precious in Push, the object becomes staying lost among
the statistics so that her low level of education is not discovered. In the
contemporary setting of Push, the initial risk becomes not the discovery
that one is educated, as in the situation of the slaves, but the discovery of
one’s lack of education. Once Precious improves her educational level,
however, the risk becomes associated with revealing her increased educational
level.
Precious initially shows mixed responses to
education and hides her low educational level from her math teacher, Mr. Wicher,
a teacher with whom she has a certain degree of rapport. Although her behavior
in the classroom can be extremely disrespectful, Precious wishes she could tell
him how low her educational level is: "I didn’t want to hurt him or
embarrass him like that you know. But I couldn’t let him, anybody, know, page
122 look like page 152, 22, 3,6,5—all the pages look alike to me"
(Sapphire 5). She continues by saying, "I wish I could tell him about all
the pages being the same but I can’t. I’m getting pretty good grades. I
usually do" (Sapphire 6). She would not reveal such response, but Precious
is touched when she is told Mr. Wicher referred to her as a good student.
Precious feels a sense of danger in obtaining a high level of education and
having her low level of education discovered. Her fears are not unfounded. As
the novel progresses, she faces intense resentment from her mother, and will
continue to face risks from society in general.
Precious longs to talk with someone about
being so far below grade level in her education, but that danger has become too
great in her mind. Her move to the alternative school provides an environment
that allows Precious to feel safe in revealing how far behind she is in her
education. Not only is Precious determined to keep her self respect in her move
to the alternative school, but she is more determined than ever to learn. She
makes and immediate connection with her teacher, Blue Rain: "I want to tell
her what I always wanted to tell someone, that the pages, ‘cept for the ones
with pictures, look all the same to me; the back row I’m not in today’ how I
sit in a chair seven years old all day wifout moving. But I ‘m not seven years
old. But I am crying. I look Miz Rain in the face, tears is coming down my eyes,
but I’m not sad or embarrass" (Sapphire 48). Precious leaves the
alternative school the first day eager to practice the alphabet. That connection
with her teachers expands quickly into a connection with her classmates.
Precious even comes to think of her teacher and classmates as her family.
Students such as Precious who are moving
towards higher levels of education face tremendous personal implications. At its
most intense form, the world they know expands into what can feel like an
entirely different world at a point where there is no turning back. Precious
begins this experience as soon as she enters the alternative school. There is a
struggle in leaving their familiar world behind, or an attempt to reconcile the
world they are moving from and the world into which they are moving. As Precious
moves to the alternative school, the danger in revealing her illiteracy
subsides.
Another moment of intense joy for Precious
comes in an initial day at the alternative school when Blue Rain guides Precious
through a short reading passage. Precious immediately discovers a sense of
empowerment through reading: "She says very good and closes the book. I
want to cry. I want to laugh. I want to hug kiss Miz Rain. She make me feel
good. I never readed nuffin’ before. Wednesday can’t come fast enuff I’m
thinking as I walk down one-two-five" (Sapphire 54-55). It is through these
early stages of literacy that Precious is aware of an image of sitting outside
of a circle and being moved inside the circle through education (Sapphire 62).
Precious begins to find her voice through education as she moves into the
circle, and there is no longer any danger in hiding her educational level in her
school environment.
As students expand their education, they are
faced with personal, social, and political values of which they are previously
unaware. Students are faced with the task of evaluating personal, social, and
cultural ideas that can change the foundation of their own beliefs. The values
and beliefs students choose to incorporate can be a source of conflict among
those with whom they associate within and outside of their academic environment.
These sources of conflict often erupt even most profoundly among their family
members and closest friends. In Precious’ case, she branches out into
experiencing other cultures such as when she attends the meeting for people with
HIV/AIDS. She is no longer only in the culture with which she is familiar. A
risk comes, however, in knowing that she is at risk of isolating herself from
certain environments such as the one she experiences in living with her mother.
Precious’ mother becomes increasingly resentful as Precious expands her
education and her experiences. Although Precious finds a type of substitute
family with the alternative school, there is a great sense of danger for her
from her mother as Precious’ education progresses. Precious faces increasing
disapproval from her mother as Precious continues in the alternative school:
"Mama say this new school ain’ …. Say you can’t learn nuffin’
writing in no book. Gotta git on that computer you want some money. When they
gonna teach you hot to do the computer. But Mama wrong. I is learning. I’m
gonna start going to Family Literacy class on Tuesdays" (Sapphire 65).
Precious faces a great deal of danger in
revealing to her mother an increased level of education. Precious faces
increased resentment from her mother when Precious becomes more involved with
her education. Her mother wants Precious to remain home and receive welfare
benefits: "’School? Mama say. ‘Go down to welfare, school cant’ help
you none, now’" (Sapphire 22). The resentment from Precious’ mother
becomes so great that Precious resorts to trying to leave the house while her
mother is asleep. Otherwise, the danger can escalate to physical abuse for
Precious: "Mama sleep. I be back before she wake up, back in time to clean
up and fix breakfast for Mama. Why Mama never do anything? One time I ax her,
when I get up from her knowcking me down, she say, That what you here for"
(Sapphire 22).
In their experience of continued education,
students may feel they have to exchange one form of education for another. The
language students use in communicating with family and friends can differ
tremendously from that expected of them in the academic environment. These
differences in language extend from values and priorities as Precious
experiences in conflicts with her mother. Revealing increased education and
language skills by Precious increases the conflict between Precious and her
mother. Students may even feel as if they are translating literacies and may
experience the perception that "A translation, then, is also a loss, a
displacement of the original, a definition of oneself in terms of another or in
another’s terms" (Bartholomae and Petrosky 9). Precious experiences the
conflict of living the separate terms and expectations of her home and school.
Conflict and danger erupt in trying to balance these expectations. Fortunately,
Blue Rain is instrumental in helping Precious balance the world of her home life
and her school. Blue Rain shows Precious that the movement between these levels
of literacy "…is neither a matter of taking ‘native’ abilities and
refining them nor a matter of replacing ignorance with wisdom" (Bartholomae
and Petrosky 7). Precious does not have to give up the knowledge she has from
her home life for the knowledge she gains from her school. The difficulty
Precious has, however, in balancing the literacies or cultural education
Precious has in her school and home environments shows in the conflicts with her
mother. Tension escalates dramatically as Precious continues her education at
the alternative school. The demands from Precious’ mother get more emphatic
and more conflicting with Precious’ education.
As Precious begins to integrate into the
alternative school, she becomes more emphatic with her mother about continuing
in school. The danger for Precious continues as the standoffs with her mother
over Precious’ school attendance become more dramatic:
Usta be when I go
to regular school Mama make me fix breakfast, bring it to her room ‘fore I
leave. But since I be outta school I just fix it a little later. She know today
I was goin’ to alternative.
"I tole you I was goin’ to cchool today."
Forget school! You better git your ass on down to welfare!"
"I gonna get stipend from school."
"Fool …a stipend! What’s that. I said take your ass down to
welfare NOW!"
"Now?" She know I got to be there at 7 a.m. if I gonna get to
talk to anybody. Welfare very crowded nowadays. "I go in the morning first
thing."
(Sapphire 56-57)
Precious continues the conversation with,
"’I go to welfare tomorrow—Tuesday. Wednesday I go to school. Monday,
Wednesday, and Friday I go to school" (Sapphire 57). For Precious, there is
a major transition from the danger of revealing her low educational level in the
traditional school to danger in addressing her higher educational level that is
developing in the alternative school.
Education is often understood as the way to
improve the quality of one’s life. There are aspects of danger, however, for
many characters in African American literature in revealing their true
educational levels. Revealing how low or high one’s true educational level is
creates dangerous situations for Fredrick Douglas and Linda Brent in the Classic
Slave Narratives as well as for Precious in the contemporary novel Push.
Works
Cited
Accomando,
Christina, and Terre Haute. "’The Laws Were Laid Down to me Anew’:
Harriet Jacobs and the Reframing of Legal Fictions." African American
Review 32(2) (Summer 1998): 229-245. Proquest. North Harris College
Library, Houston, Texas. 12 October 2001.
Bartholomae, David,
and Anthomy Petrosky. Facts, Artifacts, and Counterfacts. Portsmouth, NH:
Boynton/Cook Publishers, 1986.
Erickson, Ralph and
Chula Vista. "The Laws of Ignorance Designed to Keep Salves (Blacks)
Illiterate and Powerless." Education 118(2) (Winter 1997): 206-209. Proquest.
North Harris College Library, Houston, Texas. 12 October 2001.
Gates, Henry Louis, Jr. ed. The Class
Slave Narratives. New York: Mentor, 1987.
Riemer, James, D.
"Harriet Jacobs." Dictionary of Literary Biography 239
(2001):152-159. Dictionary of Literary Biography. North Harris College
Library, Houston, Texas. 26 November 2001.
Royer, Daniel, and
Terre Haute. "The Process of Literacy as Communal Involvement in the
Narratives of Fredrick Douglass." African American Review 28 (3)
(Fall 1994): 363+. Proquest. North Harris College Library, Houston,
Texas. 12 October 2001.
Sapphire. Push. New York: Vintage
Contemporaries, 1997.
Sharpe, Jenny.
"’Something Akin to Freedom’: The Case of Mary Prince."
Differences 8(1) (1996): 31+. Proqeust. North Harris College Library, Houston,
Texas. 12 October 2001.