LITR 5731: Seminar in American Minority Literature
University of Houston-Clear Lake, Fall 2001
Sample Student Midterm

Tomasina Alford
Professor Craig White
Literature 5731
18 February 2003

Significant References in African American Literature

            In a study of the African American novels read thus far, there are a variety of historical, literary, and famous figures referenced.  At first glance, I bypassed many of the references in the novels, but as I began analyzing the novels, the references became more apparent.  I pondered what effect the authors were trying to convey by using the particular references.  I focused on a few references to analyze in the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, Song of Solomon, and Push.  I realize the authors use these references to influence the dynamic changes that occur to the characters, which help propel the plots in the novels.

            In Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, there are two references mentioned that greatly impacts Douglass’ character.  Douglass makes a literary reference to Sir Walter Scott’s “The Lady of the Lake” and a historical reference to Harriet Tubman’s Underground Railroad.

When first reading the reference to “The Lady of the Lake” in Douglass’ narrative, most novice readers would bypass the underlying relation the literature has in regards to Frederick acquiring his last name Douglass.  It is not a coincidence that Frederick Douglass shares the same name as the hero in Scott’s poem.  After reading the poem, it is evident that Frederick’s life parallels that of the hero Douglas in “The Lady of the Lake,” and Mr. Johnson, an abolitionist who helped Douglass in the free states, knew this.  The hero in Scott’s poem, Douglas, was an outlaw and a member of the “exiled race” much like Frederick Douglass (Scott Canto 1, XXXV).  Since Frederick is on the run and being hunted, Mr. Johnson feels that he needs a name change to throw off slave catchers.  According to the Narrative…, Frederick gives Mr. Johnson “the privilege of choosing [him] a name…Mr. Johnson had just been reading the ‘Lady of the Lake,’ and at once suggested that [Frederick’s] name be ‘Douglass’” (Gates 322).  Throughout the poem, Douglas is being hunted and is seeking refuge with people who will safely shelter him from being captured, much like our renowned Douglass.

            During his escape from slavery, many historians question if Douglass is one of the thousands of slaves who participate in Harriet Tubman’s Underground Railroad.  To this day, no one really knows the truth, but many still speculate about it.  Throughout the Narrative…, Douglass takes the reader through so many details of his daily life and the triumphs he endures during his captivity, but during his quest for freedom, Douglass completely closes the door to the reader.  He chooses not to reveal any details pertaining to his escape from slavery.

            In the Narrative…, Douglass denounces the Underground Railroad because he believes the participants should not make their activities public.  The escape journey should remain personal as he has done. 

I have never approved of the very public manner in which some of our western friends have conducted what they call the underground railroad, …by their open declarations, has been made most emphatically the upperground railroad (Gates 316).

This statement is not to say that Douglass does not approve of the participants efforts of helping slaves escape.  In fact, Douglass admires the participants of the Underground Railroad.  Consequently, he believes by making their activities public endangers the slaves they are trying to help.

I honor those good men and women for their daring, and applaud them for willingly subjecting themselves to bloody persecution, by openly avowing their participation in the escape of slaves…I see and feel assured that those open declarations are a positive evil to the slaves remaining, who are seeking to escape…thy do much towards enlightening the master…They stimulate him to greater watchfulness, and enhance his power to capture his slave.

Personally, I feel Douglass makes this public denouncement towards the participants because he reveals in the Narrative… of his first escape attempt being unsuccessful, possibly because of gossip.  Douglass knows if he fails at his next attempt, “[his] case would be a hopeless one—it would seal [his] fate as a slave forever” (Gates 319).

By not revealing his method of escape to the reader, Douglass serves two purposes: 1) this does not prevent other slaves escaping the same way he did, and 2) it keeps the slaveholders paranoid and powerless in not having the all-knowing power they usually assert over slaves of how the slaves escape and become fugitives to the North.

            Like the Narrative…, Song of Solomon is embedded with historical references.  Morrison incorporates some of African American’s most infamous historical figures and moments such as the Tuskegee Airmen, the Emmett Till murder, and the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church bombing in Birmingham.  She does this blatantly to show the racial divide in American society.  From the onset of this novel, the reader gathers that Milkman and the rest of the Dead family are not much in touch with the African American culture.  As Sancar Sallanti said in her midterm paper, “Minorities within Minorities,” the Dead’s were “strangers among ordinary people.”  They aspire to divert their lives away from their native culture and assimilate to the white culture.  Although the Tuskegee Airmen do not play a major role in the development of the novel, their presence does play a major role in Milkman’s character development.  When Milkman walks into the pool hall, his high social class and educated demeanor render him out of place within his own race.  “Guitar’s face shone with embarrassment”, and assures everyone that Milkman is alright and came there with him (Morrison 57).  Feather does not want Milkman in his pool hall, not only because he is young, but mainly because he is Macon Dead’s son.  To the black people, Macon is a darkened version of the white man and this has also rubbed off on his family members.  Macon does not socialize much, especially not with other blacks, and he is very watchful of who his family members socialize with.  Instead of empathizing with the suffering of blacks, Macon flashes his wealth in their faces.

Some of the black people who saw the car passing by sighed with good-humored envy at the classiness, the dignity of it.  In 1936 there were very few among them who lived as well as Macon Dead.  Others watched the family gliding by with a tiny bit of jealousy and a whole lot of amusement, for Macon’s wide green Packard belied what they thought a car was for (Morrison 32).

This encounter with the Tuskegee Airmen and the other patrons in the pool hall force Milkman to face the reality of his ignorance of the black plight.  Milkman is out of touch with his African American heritage because Macon builds a fort around his family protecting them from knowing any realities and suffering experienced by most blacks in America.  Since Macon was born to a poor, illiterate father who could not even pronounce his name correctly, Macon is going to ensure his family and children do not endure the same treatment as other blacks.

Continuing with his ignorance of the African-American struggle, the Emmett Till newsbreak has no effect on Milkman.  While sitting at Tommy’s Barbershop, the newsbreak of the incident comes through on the radio.  All of the patrons at the barbershop sit around “muttering and shaking their heads,” except for Milkman (Morrison 80).  “It was some time before Milkman discovered what they were so tense about” (Morrison 80).  Milkman’s stoical reaction to this heinous crime is synonymous of what the patrons think the white media’s coverage of the incident is going to be like:

                        It’ll be in the morning paper.

                        Maybe it will, and maybe it won’t, said Porter.

                        It was on the radio!  Got to be in the paper!  said Freddie.

They don’t put that kind of news in no white paper.  Not unless he raped somebody (Morrison 80).

Not once does Milkman intervene in this conversation because he has nothing to contribute that deems relevant to the people he is around.  From this day forward, Milkman continues to observe the troubled effect this incident has on the other blacks in the community, especially on Empire State and Guitar who decide retaliation is necessary.  

Empire State, Guitar, and five other young black men form a caucus, Seven Days, whose mission is to fight for civil rights by any means necessary.  Whenever blacks are killed by whites and no punishment is given to the white perpetrator, the Seven Days feel it is equitable to kill a white person in a similar manner. 

A young boy, about sixteen years old, on his way home from school, had been strangled with what was believed to be a rope, and his head was bashed in…the way in which the boy had been killed was similar to the way another boy had been killed on New Year’s Eve in 1953, and the way four grown men had been killed in 1955--the strangulation, the smashing of the face (Morrison 99).

Four little colored girls had been blown out of a church, and his mission was to approximate as best [] a similar death of four little white girls some Sunday… (Morrison 173).

Although there are no prime suspects in the violent acts committed against the whites, every black man in the community knows he is a suspect—except Milkman.  Milkman does not imagine that he is a suspect.  Because of the lifestyle Milkman is accustomed to the façade Macon has created for him. Milkman thinks of himself as an educated and middle class man.  But, does he forget that he is a “black” man?  In Milkman’s mind, the police will have to think twice before questioning him about some heinous crime, but the other black men in the community know that to the police, Milkman is just like any other black male—a suspect. 

Push’s references are the most influential in regards to developing the protagonist.  Throughout the novel, repeated references are made to such figures as Harriet Tubman, Louis Farrakhan, Langston Hughes, and Alice Walker, but the most significant reference made in Push is The Color Purple. 

            Once Precious begins the GED program, numerous references are made about Alice Walker’s The Color Purple.  Precious loves the story and she loves the protagonist Celie because Celie’s life parallels her own.  Precious feels she has a deep emotional connection with Celie, “I cry cry cry you hear me, it sound in a way so much like myself except I ain’ no butch like Celie” (Sapphire 81).  Like Precious, Celie is a poor uneducated teenage black girl.  Both girls are subjected to incestuous relationships with the father figures in their lives, though Celie later finds out her father figure is really her stepfather, Precious’ father remains her biological.  During both incestuous relationships, the girls become impregnated and give birth twice- first to a girl, then a boy.  Not only is incest an abuse the girls both share at the hands of a parent, but also the girls endure ferocious physical abuse by a parent. 

            As a young girl, Celie is constantly subjected to abuse and told she is ugly, much like Precious and both accept the abuse in a passive manner.  But, growing up, they find stronger black females to latch onto, who coincidentally are both lesbians. Shug’s maternal prodding helps spur Celie’s development, as does Ms. Rain with Precious. 

Precious does have an advantage over Celie.  Aside from latching onto Shug Avery, Celie has nothing or no one else to draw strength from during her journey towards freedom.  Fortunately for Precious, she not only draws her strength from Ms. Rain and her classmates, but Precious claims to love The Color Purple so because “that book gives me so much strength” (Sapphire 82-83).

            Through literacy, both Celie and Precious gradually gain the ability to synthesize their thoughts and feelings into a voice that is fully their own.  The journey each woman goes through of finding her voice culminates her to explode on her abuser for all the years of abuse and abasement. 

            Sometimes after analyzing the many similarities between Celie and Precious, I begin to wonder if Sapphire is not recreating a modern day Celie in The Color Purple with this novel Push. 

            Although the references may be subtle, they have a profound impact on the development of each protagonist.  The references impacted the protagonists by giving them a turning point in life, much like an epiphany.  As readers, we can find these subtle hints have greatly improved the dynamics of the novels by making the characters multidimensional, which enhances the interest of the plot structure.