1.  Why do “desire and loss” re-appear so frequently in American Romantic texts, both as driving forces in the “romance” narrative and as indexes for Romantic values?

Describe the significance of this pattern for the romance narrative and its general significance in Romanticism, citing works by three or four writers. . . .

Desire and Loss: A Shared Human Experience

            In her 2005 final exam, Kristy Pawlak claims that Romanticism is "the movement which speaks most directly to every reader" and that "the major themes inherent in the movement are ones which speak to the very hearts and souls of its readers." Indeed, throughout Romanticism, the universal themes of rebellion, nostalgia, the gothic, the sublime, and individualism speak to readers as they address all of humanity. One such theme, desire and loss, deserves notice, for it impacts the human experience twofold. DC, in a 2005 final exam, claims that "other than fear and hunger, it is desire and loss that are the two most powerful forces that shape the human experience." First, the individual invests time and energy into gaining the object of desire. Afterward, the individual must cope with the grief of having lost the coveted object. Indeed, desire and loss provide the driving force behind so many Romance narratives because this universal theme is readily embraced and widely understood. We have all sensed, at one time or another, the indescribably intense passion involved in seeking an object of desire. We have also suffered, sometimes immeasurably, the unspeakable grief that results from losing that coveted object or desire.  

            The theme of desire and loss appears particularly significant as it relates to another Romantic theme: idealism. Throughout our readings, individuals focus their lives on idealized elements--the ideal family, the ideal lover, in essence the ideal goal or dream--which they then set forth as desire. In most cases, attaining these ideals often involves sacrifice or crossing physical or moral boundaries as Romantic figures invest time and energy--indeed, parts of their very souls--in attempting to realize their idealized visions. Then, when the objective is lost, they lose not only the object of desire but also part of themselves and their identities. In particular, this recurring pattern of desire and loss and its unfortunate repercussions can be seen in Charlotte: A Tale of Truth by Susanna Rowson, Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe, and "Winter Dreams" by F. Scott Fitzgerald.

            In Charlotte, our heroine looks to Montraville as the ideal lover. She notices that he is "generous in his disposition, liberal in his opinions, and goodnatured almost to a fault." Moreover, Montraville boasts a handsome appearance. "He has a remarkable clear skin and fine complexion," claims Charlotte, adding that his eyes are "the most expressive eyes" she has ever seen. Unfortunately, Charlotte's infatuation with Montraville becomes so strong that she begins to sacrifice the moral values instilled by her parents. Urged on by LaRue, she leaves behind her innocence by disobeying Madame DuPont and forsaking the protection and love of her parents. Although she tries to resist Montraville's tempting advances, her "treacherous heart" betrays her as Montraville "at parting . . . entreats one more interview." Finally, she admits the sacrifice she has made: "I have forgot all that I ought to have remembered, in consenting to this intended elopement." As Charlotte continues to step further from familial protection, she  walks toward an ill-fated love affair with Montraville and soon after faces abandonment.   As she suffers the loss of her idealized lover, Charlotte realizes that she cannot return to her former state of security and happiness, for the sacrifice she made has permanently changed her status in society. In her final lament to LaRue, Charlotte abandons all hope of a future life: "We both too easily followed the impulse of our treacherous hearts, and trusted our happiness on a tempestuous ocean, where mine has been lost and wrecked forever." The words "lost and wrecked forever" indicate that Charlotte's idealized vision of becoming Montraville's wife has been crushed. She has not only lost her lover, but she has lost her identity as well. Unfortunately, she can now only be identified as a "poor despised creature, an outcast from society, an object only of contempt and pity." For Charlotte, desire and loss has led her down an unforgiving  path of misery.  And although her soul has undergone repentance, her ruined body expires in "dreadful scene" marked by despondency and bereavement. 

            Like Charlotte, Stowe's Hagar looks to an idealized vision (as much as is possible for slaves) of life. Having lost most of her family to the slave trade, she now has one son left. Hagar's fragile hope is to retain this final fragment of her dwindling family: "You's my last baby," she cries out to Albert as she "[holds] on to him with both her shaking hands, and eye[s] with intense trepidation every one who walk[s] up to examine him." Hagar is "partially blind," is "crooked with rheumatis," and has become disabled by "hard work and disease." Knowing that her physical impairments will prevent her from staying with Albert, Hagar resorts to any measure to remain with him. Sacrificing what little dignity she has, she submits herself to public ridicule and begs, "put us two up togedder, togedder,--do please, Mas'r." She also crosses a moral boundary by lying about her abilities: "I can cook yet, and scrub, and scour . . . I's rail strong yet, Mas'r, and can do heaps o' work." Unfortunately, Hagar's sacrificial efforts fail, and she eventually loses Albert in the sale. 

            Hagar, like Charlotte, undergoes transformation after her loss. As this "poor creature's last despairing hold" is loosed from Albert, Hagar not only loses her identity and status as a mother, but she also abandons her Christianity. Whereas before the sale Hagar appeals to the Lord's mercy, afterwards, her faith in God shatters. When prompted by her friends to "trust in the Lord," she renounces her faith, replying, "What good will it do?" Unfortunately, this once-devout Christian mother, having undergone desire and unspeakable loss, now stands childless and spiritually bereft. Although her faith may once again recover, Hagar's life will forever bear the scar of tragic loss.     

            Finally, like Charlotte and Hagar, Fitzgerald's Dexter sets before him an idealized vision of happiness. For Dexter, the "arrestingly beautiful" Judy Jones fills his dreams as the perfect lover. This "slender enamelled doll" consumes his every waking minute as he dreams of her "passionate eyes and down turning mouth." Sacrificing his self-respect and dignity, he devotes everything to the pursuit of unrequited love: "So much he had given of his active life to the curved lips of Judy Jones." Unfortunately, Judy responds by treating him with "malice, with indifference, with contempt." She subjects him to ill-treatment and disrespect while toying with his emotions. After leading him on an emotional roller coaster, she finally breaks up with him one last time. Years later, he hears of her unhappy marriage to an unfaithful, alcoholic husband. But by this point, Dexter has become numb to any feelings toward her. 

            As Dexter mourns the loss of Judy and of her memory, he realizes he has lost a part of himself. "Long ago, there was something in me," he laments, "but now that thing is gone . . . I cannot cry . . . I cannot care." Dexter has lost the part of himself that had opened up to the promise of love. Now, where he once thought that he "would love her until the day he was too old for loving," he loves Judy Jones no longer, nor will he ever love anyone else. Because of the pain of his desire and loss, Dexter's heart has become too damaged to risk loving again.

            As Charlotte, Hagar, and Dexter take risks and make sacrifices to seek ideals, goals and desires, they inevitably must face the universal truth of loss and grief. This universal experience, as Pawlak reminds us, is that which reaches "the very hearts and souls" of readers and writers of Romanticism. Indeed, as our heroes identify and seek ideals for happiness and self-fulfillment, and as they heroically cope with the daily struggles of loss, they model the steadfast determinism and strength of that human spirit which dwells, in one degree or another, in all of us.  [SL]

The Romantic Quest:  Desire and Loss

MB ends her desire and loss essay for the 2005 final with the comment that “it is the universality of desire and loss in literature and in life that leads the reader to understand and enjoy the [Romantic] literature more . . . .”   In this brief comment, MB encapsulates the appeal of Romantic Literature.  The themes of Romantic Literature are a prime example of art imitating life, and frequently the lives of the Romantic authors are examples of life imitating art.

In my midterm essay, I discussed the American narrative as a Romantic quest narrative stretching from its roots in the writings of Columbus to the recent speculation at NASA about a journey to Mars.  It is in keeping with the Romantic Spirit of this New World country that America was the first country to land its citizens on the moon just as it was the first, two hundred plus years earlier, to launch a new experiment in self government.

Since literature is so closely tied to life experiences, it is normative that much of American literature incorporates the ideals of the quest of Romanticism and inherent in the quest narrative is the concept of desire and loss.  Life often reflects the romantic narrative in which soon after achieving the goal of the quest, and victory, another loss occurs creating the desire for another quest.  This concept was well expressed by DC’s 2005 essay in the following quote:

“. . . other than fear and hunger, it is desire and loss that are the two most powerful forces that shape the human experience. It is our desires which drive us, both as individuals and nations, which have forged the rise of mighty empires, and it is desire, ultimately, which lies behind every human motivation towards action. This is especially true in the United States, a country either colonized or conquered, (depending upon your view) by poets, dreamers, explorers, and visionaries, with none of them content with merely living the status quo. With this questing spirit in our national consciousness to see what is beyond the horizon, is there any doubt that this desire would not also show up in our literature?”

The quest narrative with its accompanying desire and loss theme is seen in the earliest pre-romantic period writings in our nation and continues in American literature. . . .

The desire and loss motif continues in post romantic literature.  In the poetry of Langston Hughes the journey prompted by desire continues with the accompanying losses.  “Mother to Son” encapsulates the desire and loss cycle so completely as the Mother desires her son to continue the journey, “For I’se still goin’, honey, I’se still climbin’,” even though she had “sometimes goin’ in the dark Where  there ain’t been no light.” . . .

Many black authors during Hughes's time period became disaffected and left the country, including W. E. B. Du Bois and James Baldwin.  Hughes seemed to be able to maintain his own goals and desires and remain in the country, where eventually he achieved great recognition and success.  Perhaps his desire to continue to desire the adventure of America, in spite of the losses he has incurred, is well stated in one of his poems, “I, too, sing America.”

As Hughes so effectively expresses in this poem, Americans live in a flawed society, and as a result, experience numerous losses.  However, like Hughes, most Americans continue to desire a better, “Tomorrow,” and are willing to continue the journey to achieve a collective desire for a better tomorrow, and as the society continues the quest, the authors and artists will continue interpreting the journey. [GL]

The “American Dream” is what drew, and continues to draw, thousands of immigrants to American shores.  As human beings, most seem to inherently want something better for themselves and for their future.  American Romantic texts borrow from this basic human yearning when authors employ “desire and loss” as driving forces in their narratives.  When a “desire” is encountered, a journey must follow in order to attain the person or situation one is longing for. . . . [JLS]

Desire and loss is a driving force in American Romantic literature.  In a final exam answer from 2005, MB states that “American Romantic texts follow the pattern of desire and loss frequently because the basic romantic impulse is a desire for something beyond the here and now and this desire in many cases cannot be reached by those pursuing it” (MB).  The concept of desire and loss, although frequent in American Romantic texts, is also present in post romantic literature.  Literature ranging from Jacobs to Jewett and Fitzgerald contains desire and loss as a genesis of the story.  There are different levels of desire and loss such as physical, spiritual, and emotional.  Each of these authors also represents a journey within the line of desire and loss, a kind of transcendence.  Although these authors are from different periods, they each use desire and loss to move their characters to a form of transcendence.

Jacobs’, “Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl,” shows Linda, a slave, and her journey toward freedom.   Her first encounter with loss is when she is six and her mother dies.  Until this time, she is a happy child and unaware of the pains of slavery.  When her mother dies, she experiences a double loss: the loss of her mother and the realization that she is a slave, “a piece of merchandise” (813).  Jacobs uses this as the impetus for Linda’s future patterns of desire and loss.  Linda desires to reclaim her freedom, both physical and emotional.  Her owner is attempting to force her into a physical relationship.  Although Linda is determined to be a “virtuous” person, she determines that it is more virtuous to choose her own mate instead of it being forced upon her.  In taking this step, she is claiming a small piece of freedom.  This claim of freedom costs her dearly in her relationship with her Grandmother, but it is a step toward freedom. 

Linda’s story ends in freedom in the north but it is not complete.  Linda’s closing statement reiterates the pattern of desire and loss.  Jacobs writes “We are as free from the power of slaveholders as are the white people of the north; and though that, according to my ideas, is not saying a great deal, it is a vast improvement in my condition.  The dream of my life is not yet realized” (833).  Although Linda is free, her true desire is not yet realized.

The cycle of desire and loss continues.  Jacobs writes during the Romantic period.  This kind of writing influences future post romantic writers such as Jewett and Fitzgerald. . . . [LAM]

DESIRE AND LOSS:  PART OF THE AMERICAN DREAM

The themes of desire and loss are important elements of American Romantic literature.  In fact, desire and loss are central to the human story.  Desire is the force that drives humanity, and loss is the inevitable end to things.  We see desire and loss first expressed in the Garden of Eden.  Adam and Eve desired to “be as God” and they experienced the loss of their innocence.  America was founded upon the desire for a better world, desire for freedom, desire for a godly order, desire for a new sense of liberation, or desire for something or someone.  But, invariably, along with that desire comes loss:  the loss of virgin landscape, loss of freedom for all, loss of the pure faith, loss of idealism, and loss of individual people and things. . . .

Christopher Columbus began as a young man full of optimistic idealism.  He sought a path to wealth and glory for his crown, and to bring the Word of God to the heathen.  What he got was a new world, and then he lost it all.  But Columbus had opened up a window of desire for generations to come.

Desire and loss follow a continual cycle.  When desire ends in loss, a new desire steps in to take its place, followed by another loss, ad infinitum.  The Puritan, Mary Rowlandson, desired to be a wife and mother, to live a quiet life in Puritan America.  That life could not last.  When the Indians took her captive, she experienced the loss of the world she had known.  At that point, she realized that her desire must be for God.  As Emily Masterson writes in her final exam:

The human spirit must desire in opposition with loss.  To cope, Rowlandson must devalue her loss—in doing this she must place value on a replacement. Rowlandson’s choice is to strive for the spiritual realm and break her connections with earthly things.

In Eastern philosophy, especially Buddhism, unhappiness is the result of unfulfilled desires.  The way to peace is to destroy all desire.  The transcendentalists were heavily influenced by the Easter mystics.  The transcendentalists sought to strip away all the aspects of life that weighed down a human soul in order to find God within each person.  One of those things that weigh us down is desire.  Emerson and Thoreau were the quintessential transcendentalists, and they sought to achieve simplicity in order to commune with their inner light.  However, that ideal of simplicity itself became an ideal that had to be followed by loss. . . . [AC]