April Davis
Dr. White
LITR 5535
September 26,2003

                                                Crossing Boundaries

            Boundaries are limits placed on human existence. Although most people exercise, to a great degree, an unawareness of the boundaries that restrict their thoughts and actions, some individuals dare to cross the boundaries and explore the unknown. These are the people who develop new ideas and continue the evolution of mankind. In American history, there have been many boundaries crossed and ideas born. At the height of the exploration of both the wilderness as well as the social and psychological aspects of human nature emerged the literature of the Romantics. Pre-Romantic writers initiated an examination of the physical and mental borders of the Americas. Men such as Captain John Smith, Jonathan Edwards, and Thomas Jefferson pushed the boundaries of their existence and paved the way for later Romantic writers. The crossing of boundaries initiated by these pre-Romantic writers continues in James Fenimore Cooper’s The Last of the Mohicans.

            The location and exploration of the United States may be credited to the pioneering spirit of the many men and women who refused to accept, not only the traditional boundaries imposed by European society, but its physical borders as well. Men such as Captain John Smith sought to cross the physical boundaries of human existence and explore a wild and untamed wilderness. According to Smith, “ What so truly suits with honor and honesty, as the discovering things unknown?” (Smith 54). He further expounds, “Then, who would live at home idly (or think in himself any worth to live) only to eat, drink, and sleep, and so die?” (Smith 54). Smith’s own life was a series of travels and adventures. He served in the military and fought many battles in countries all over the world. Eventually his wandering heart, as well as his reputation as a strong leader, led him to the untamed wilds of the Americas where he helped to explore the unknown frontiers of the Americas. Never content to sit idly by, Smith continued his explorations deeper and deeper into the wilderness. In his writings he encouraged the spirit of exploration; although he offered the disclaimer,  “My purpose is not to persuade children [to go] from their parents; men from their wives; nor servants from their masters: only, such as with free consent may be spared…” (Smith 56). Smith’s comments inadvertently acknowledge that social systems, in this case the family structure, often discourage the spirit of adventure. Although Smith was considered by many to be volatile and self important, it cannot be denied that his contributions to the exploration of the United States were an invaluable inspiration to later Romantic writers.  

            Social systems, as Smith alluded to, place limits upon the actions of the individual. Institutions that govern our social relationships, such as government, religion, and others, are so ingrained in the society that many people fail to recognize the imposition of the unnatural boundaries. Although boundaries and laws are necessary in order to maintain harmony among groups of people and to prevent chaos, an unfortunate lack of awareness concerning the nature of these constraints generally leads to apathy and lack of innovation among the masses. Often the only way to achieve any awareness is by distancing oneself from the governing institutions (at least in thought) and examining the nature of the boundaries. This crossing of social borders is imperative to the creation of new ideas and ways of living. Many if not most of the early American settlers, particularly those from England, sought refuge from the social and political constraints of their homeland.

 Thomas Jefferson was one of the founding fathers that sought to cast off the social constraints of England and form a new government based on the will of the people. In the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson asserts that government power is contingent upon the will of the governed, and that it is the right of the governed to abolish a government that fails to protect its needs and rights. Jefferson states, “ …accordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed,” (Jefferson 338).  Social confines are not light and transient norms that may be overthrown upon a whim; however, they must be changed when they no longer serve the purpose for which they were created.

 Jefferson in his infinite awareness of the delicate balance between majority and minority questioned the validity of laws that seemed to persecute groups that were minorities due to religious choice, race, etc. In the Declaration of Independence he sought to end the system of slavery, but was unsuccessful (Jefferson 346). When examining the laws and the declaration of rights of Virginia, Jefferson questioned the legitimacy of laws pertaining to religion and heresy.  Jefferson recommended reason and free inquiry over laws governing human behavior and asserted that truth can stand on its own.  According to Thomas Jefferson, “…the operations of the mind, as well as the acts of the body, are subject to the coercion of the laws.  But our rulers can have authority of such natural rights only as we have submitted to them…The legitimate powers of government extend to such acts only as are injurious to others” (Jefferson 343). Jefferson sought a form of government that would not only protect the rights of the people, but would allow the people the opportunity to think and reason on their own.

 Unfortunately, many of Jefferson’s ideas concerning social constraints have been lost in the quagmire of laws enacted to serve the self-interest of the very group he warned against. In a letter to John Adams, Jefferson made the distinction between the natural aristocracy of men born of infinite talent and wisdom and the artificial aristocracy of the wealthy. He warned of an infiltration of the government by the artificial aristocracy as a means of protecting their wealth. Of common men Jefferson lamented, “They will forget themselves, but in the sole faculty of making money, and will never think of uniting to effect a due respect for their rights,” (Jefferson 345).

Such is the plight of those who cannot or will not question social systems. Jefferson’s relentless questioning of social boundaries served as a model for the rebellious spirit of later Romantic writings.

            Social systems have a profound psychological impact on their constituents. Unfortunately, if one is able to cast off a set of social boundaries, one then encounters a host of psychological boundaries that must be crossed as well. Within the constructs of the human condition, language, capitalism, etc., a person is not often allowed to perceive the unity of all things. The world is marginalized and categorized in relation to have and have not, is and is not, resulting in a sort of disjointed tunnel vision on the part of the observer. Only by casting off the human construction of categories and ideas may a person achieve the sort of enlightenment necessary for the evolution of new ideas.  Certainly many such a person roamed the vast wilderness of the United States in the pre-Romantic era, unrestrained by the laws and conventions of society. Perhaps these were the ancestors of the later Transcendentalists.

 One such man, Jonathan Edwards, experienced a sort of divine intuition into the unity of all things and the futility of the constructs of mankind. Although Edwards’ life was ingrained in Christian doctrine, his intuition into the nature of things surpassed the system in which he existed. Edwards realized the need for people to experience life (spirituality) rather than merely understand it in terms of reason. In his narrative Edwards compared the difference between understanding the spiritual and feeling the spiritual to the difference between reading the word fire and being burned by fire (Edwards 182). He spent his life attempting to persuade people that they must possess an intense awareness of the precarious condition of humankind. 

            In his personal narrative, Edwards describes his inward struggles between his reason – imposed by the constructs of mankind- and his spiritual intuition. Once intuition overtook Edwards and he relinquished control of his artificial reason, he began to experience the true joy of existence. As in subsequent Romantic narratives, Edwards achieves his greatest moments of enlightenment out of doors, awestruck by the magnificence of nature.

            The pre-Romantic ideas of crossing boundaries converge in Cooper’s The Last of the Mohicans, with the most concrete of boundaries, the physical, driving the theme the journey throughout the entire novel. In chapter one Cooper writes, “It was a feature peculiar to the colonial wars of North America, that the toils and dangers of the wilderness were to be encountered before the adverse hosts could meet. A wide and apparently an impervious boundary of forests severed the possessions of the hostile provinces of France and England,” (Cooper 11). Thus the social boundaries constructed by man become subordinated to the more imposing natural boundaries of the untamed wilderness.

 The initial journey of the story involves the quest to get two daughters, Cora and Alice, safely to their father. Although Cooper downgrades the difficulties and dangers presented by the forest in and of itself by focusing on the threats of hostile humans, the reality of the dangers are everpresent. This young and inexperienced group consists of two women and two men who have never ventured out of civilization and into the unknown. Without the help of Hawkeye, Chingachgook, and Uncas the group could not have survived the journey. If they did not die from starvation, lose their way, or suffer from snakebites, they would certainly have been at the mercy of wild animals and the elements. Because of these realities, a dependency upon those who have previously crossed these physical boundaries is established.

The fact that Hawkeye, Chingachgook, and Uncas reside in nature rather than in a human constructed civilization, allows them insight, intuition and a one-ness with the universe that the other characters fail to possess. These characters understand nature rather than fear it, and because of their increased awareness they are able to reach new heights of ingenuity. For example, Uncas is able to track a man by the fall of his moccasin and Hawkeye is able to (arguably) convincingly portray a bear. Hawkeye, as a man born of European descent, has tested the boundaries imposed not only by the land, but by his people as well.

            In the story, the crossing of physical boundaries is inextricably linked to the boundaries imposed by the social sphere. For example, it is not socially acceptable for proper English persons to go running about in the forest; and yet we see Hawkeye, who has rejected many of the European ways in favor of those of the Indians, doing just that. Hawkeye’s nonconformity is further illustrated by his friendship with Chingachgook. At this time in a history, an interracial friendship pushed the boundaries of social norms. However, because Hawkeye maintains a strong European identity and sense of pride in his white lineage he seems almost hypocritical. If examined from the perspective of the author, although Cooper can allow Hawkeye to adopt the ways of the red man as well as befriend one, he cannot allow Hawkeye to reject the ways of the white man entirely because this would have alienated Cooper’s white audience.    

            In terms of crossing social boundaries, the character of Cora also bears examination.  Her first act of nonconformity, being of mixed blood, is not an act of choice; yet it is rebellious nonetheless. Perhaps it is this very part of her being that prevents her from playing the role of the helpless distressed female. Though Cora stops far short of rejecting social standards, when contrasted with the character of Alice, it becomes evident that Cora’s character has taken major steps towards questioning the roles of women in society. Her defiance is marked in the scene when she devises a plan of escape that not only jeopardizes her own life, but takes power and control away from the men.

            Although Cooper allows several characters to cross social boundaries, he seems reluctant to allow his characters to cross psychological boundaries. One of the major obstacles in the minds of many of the characters is that of fear. And while all of the characters are forced to face their fears, none seem to develop any divine intuition as a result. Hayward does seem to have intense moments of heightened awareness as he faces his fears of the unknown in order to prevent a loss of love. Perhaps he overcomes his fears and grows in some degree; however, his psyche seems relatively unchanged. Cooper almost hints at a breakthrough when Hayward insists on disguising himself and infiltrating the enemy camp. Cooper writes, “The awakened spirit of the young soldier gleamed in his eyes, and his form became imposing under its influence” (Cooper 270). Where does Hayward’s “awakened spirit” go after that? Cooper fails to engage any further in the expansion of the mind of Hayward.

Conversely, Hawkeye appears to be a character that Cooper has allowed to cross psychological boundaries; however, he must have crossed them in previous books because he appears in The Last of the Mohicans as a man already firm in his beliefs. Early in the story, Hawkeye’s insight into the essence of nature is revealed through his analysis of the wayward river at Glenn’s Falls. He reflects, “After the water has been suffered to have its will, for a time, like a headstrong man, it is gathered together by the hand that made it…[later] flowing on steadily toward the sea, as was foreordained from the first foundation of the ‘arth!”(Cooper 64). Cooper provides many more clues that reveal Hawkeye’s heightened awareness of the human condition. For example when Hayward insists on infiltrating the Indian camp Cooper muses [on Hawkeye], “Perhaps there was something in the proposal that suited his own hardy nature, and that secret love of desperate adventure which had increased with his experience, until hazard and danger had become, in some measure, necessary to the enjoyment of his existence” (Cooper 270). Despite Hawkeye’s many insights, he is never completely allowed to shake off conventional predjudices. Nonetheless, for an early Romantic character, Hawkeye has moments of transcendence.

The idea of crossing physical, social, and psychological boundaries form the cornerstone of not only the Romantic ideology, but of the spirit of America. Unfortunately as the civilization expands and the boundaries appear further and further away from the lives of people, few dare to explore what lies on the other side.