LITR 5737: Literary & Historical Utopias
Midterm Submission 2007

Yvonne Hopkins

June 18, 2007

 The Elusive Concept of Utopia

Objs. 1 and 2

The word “Utopia” derives its meaning from the Greek root topos, place, and the prefixes ou and eu, translating into no place and good place simultaneously. The paradoxical elements of its etymology, suggest the elusive quality of the concept of Utopia, lending a sense of idealism that inspires a “literature of ideas” and a constructivism that manifests itself in the creation and dissipation over time of historical utopias. 

A key feature of utopias evolves from the elements of seclusion and separation that define them both geographically and ideologically.  In More’s Utopia, this separation occurs as a result of intervention by man in the digging of a channel to create an island detached from the continent, a mammoth “undertaking” that generates a sense of the sublime in its ability to inspire  “admiration and terror” (29).  Conversely, Gillman’s Herland develops from a volcanic eruption resulting in the creation of a natural barrier to the outside world.  Bellamy’s Looking Backward relies not on geographical location, but separation by time.  Essentially, literary utopias result from cataclysmic events associated with millennialism, signifying the end of an era and the beginning of a new, establishing a combination of separation and isolation that proves vital to their formation and duration, while offering containment and protection from outside influences. Historical utopias share similarities with their literary counterparts in demonstrating a desire for separation from the mainstream, and communal living governed by distinct philosophies, ecological, social, and spiritual.  The communities of Twin Oaks and Oneida, for instance, were formed by like-minded people seeking lifestyles that echoed their need for egalitarianism and spiritual perfectionism.  Separation in such cases occurs as a result of a spiritual awakening or a conscious choice to live separately from society’s mainstream.

In both the literary and historical sense, utopias share basic tenets, systems of belief or ideals emanating from a desire for betterment that become instrumental in creating a new social paradigm.  The most obvious and fundamental tenet involves the shift in emphasis from individualism to collectivism.  In the texts of More, Bellamy, and Gilman, the move towards a commonwealth and the development of a “social consciousness” evolves through the eradication of private enterprise and property ownership, the building blocks of capitalism, and the promotion of equality for the many as opposed to freedom for the few (Gilman 81). In satisfying the “physical and mental needs” of all, service to the community and the nation evolves naturally and peaceably through the investment of human capital, labor, which far from being exploited for individual gain remains solidly for the benefit and advancement of the group (Bellamy 39). 

An extension of the collective ideal further arises in the development of the family.  Unlike the nuclear model so prevalent in western society, its utopian counter-part reflects a model in which traditional practices have been altered to create a more expansive, communal system of parenting. Thus child rearing becomes a child-centered, sharing process “we each have a million children to love and serve – our children” (Gilman 71), and children develop in an atmosphere conducive to well-being with, as Matt Mayo notes, “no danger or surprise, and no incessant personal notions of vanity, or parenthood” impeding the process (Midterm 2005).

Additionally, the role of education enhances the communal aspect, further developing the collective ethos. More and Bellamy identify learning as a means to fulfillment through purposeful occupation.  While both allow for exceptional cases of giftedness, education remains primarily a utilitarian concept with the prime goal of serving society.  Gilman, however, expands on this notion by presenting education as part of a natural, holistic process of growth towards “laying the foundation for that close beautiful group feeling into which they grew so firmly with the years” (108). While all three writers vary in their depiction of utopian parenting and education, they share a common thread of purpose, an emphasis on parenting and “education for citizenship” (Gilman 108).

While the utopian ideal springs from a desire for a better world, no definition can ignore the inherent dystopian element intrinsically bound to the quest for the ideal, giving credence to the idea that one person’s dream so easily becomes another’s nightmare; one’s utopia, another’s dystopia.  Consequently, the tolerance of slavery and the advocacy of a patriarchal power system in More’s text suggest a latent hypocrisy that undermines the integrity of his utopian ideal.  Similarly, Bellamy replaces a capitalistic monopoly with a military counterpart where the centralized power of the state dictates all areas of life from schooling to vocation to shopping.  Bellamy’s text also echoes the familiar gender stereotypes in depicting the men as voices of reason and serious discourse while women must content themselves with shopping and social niceties.  Gilman’s scenario is perhaps the most idyllic in its depiction of matriarchal harmony so complete it no longer requires men for anything, even procreation.  Yet in developing a “mental outlook […] so collective” the women of Herland surrender any sense of the personal life, portraying a defining aspect of the utopian experience – the almost complete effacement of self.

It is the erasure of self that informs the dystopian world of Ayn Rand’s novella, Anthem.  Just as More, Bellamy, and Gilman developed their works in response to the social and cultural contexts of their time, Rand created Anthem as a critique of socialism and collectivism after her exile from Bolshevik Russia. In the nightmare world of Equality 7-2521, identity has been reduced to category and number; birth, education, occupation, and leisure (such as it is) are programmed and controlled by the state. It is a world ground in toil and drudgery, a collective of automatons, drones pledged to the glorification of the nation, the universal “we.” Rand’s implicit criticism of such a world evokes images of social and economic stagnation, the result of a lack of creative enterprise and individual ingenuity. Equality 7-2521’s discovery of the lighting device works symbolically to convey enlightenment while also serving as the catalyst for his recognition of his individualism, his sense of self, of the forbidden “I.”  Rand’s message here recalls Descartes “I think, therefore I am” and reminds us that human nature is innately curious, spontaneous, and individualistic.  To deny such fundamental human characteristics is to deny man himself.  Her indictment of the collective ideology echoes in Prometheus’s declaration: “There is nothing to take a man’s freedom away from him, save other men. To be free, a man must be free of his brothers” (101).  While Rand rejects the utopian ideals of collectivism and interdependency, she inevitably plants the seeds of a future dystopia based on individualism, as Prometheus, driven by an intoxicating sense of self empowerment, succumbs to rampant egoism in the worship of the “temple,” the new god “I.” Paradoxically, the concepts of utopia and dystopia exist as definitive yet antithetical parts of the human endeavor towards the creation of an ideal world.

Utopian literature forms a unique hybrid drawing from a variety of genres, incorporating both narrative and expository styles.  Yet as readers conditioned by western culture, we are naturally drawn to the narrative form, the art of story telling. A large part of the process involves a narrative driven by plot, a series of actions and events that stimulate the senses, providing excitement, intrigue, and suspense, as well as a sense of conflict, resolution, and closure.  Utopian literature because of its philosophical base tends to manifest itself as a literature of ideas, eliminating many of the markers of the novel’s style, the focus being to inform, express, even persuade rather than entertain.  As a result, something is lost in the ability of the literature to sustain the reader’s interest and provide a sense of involvement between reader and text. 

While all of the texts engage in myth making, adventure, and to an extent the travel narrative, More and Bellamy’s rely extensively on Socratic dialogue in the protracted discussions of social reform. The tone verges on the didactic and the appeal of the text tends towards the special interest group, with the risk of alienating readers. Gilman’s weaving of adventure, suspense, and romance provides a more traditional narrative, creating a broader appeal.  Her depiction of a highly evolved, androgynous female population, however, renders conflict between genders impotent. The women of Herland, for all their superior qualities, lack dimension, possessing “no sex motive and with it, jealousy,” the dramatic elements vital in creating emotional and sexual tension between characters.  It is as if the females in Herland possess a collective personality, and the development of individual characters with whom the reader can identify, love, or hate becomes secondary to the novel’s social advocacy.   

Comparatively, Anthem succeeds where the other texts fail in terms of its literary appeal.  The novella follows the gradual awakening and actualization of an individual’s consciousness, drawing the reader into the process through the personal narrative style.  Rand effectively pits the individual against society, playing on the archetypal binaries of light and darkness, and the images of Adam and Eve expelled from an albeit satirical paradise only to venture into a new Eden.  Sensory details create images that entrance and repel, and the poetic simplicity of the language engages the reader emotionally.  Moreover, Rand’s satirical elements, evident in her ironical depiction of a dystopian Utopia, call into question again the paradoxical components of an ideology that begins in earnest yet invariably founders as a result of humankind’s imperfection, testifying resoundingly to the lure and the impossibility of the quest for Utopia.