LITR 5737: Literary & Historical Utopias
Final Exam Submission 2007
Donny L. Leveston
Topic A1:
Utopian Literary Implications
The study of utopias attempts to establish parallels comparable to those of traditional literary genres. One parallel in particular that the study of utopias as fiction attempts is narrative. Usually, fictional narratives are told from a personal perspective that has a beginning, middle, and an ending with a discernible plot. Utopian texts usually lose some aspects of traditional fiction like character and plot development while trying to espouse others like didacticism and entertainment. The utopian narrative is usually told from a descriptive or didactic perspective. It may also be a combination of descriptive, expository, satirical, personal, and other narrative elements. From a literary perspective, the study of utopias blends canonized ideologies from traditional literary genres and non-traditional ideologies into utopian stories.
If one looks at Thomas More’s novel, Utopia, and its genre, novel, it is clear that this is a work of fiction. However, one may ask, “How does this utopian text work as fiction?” To answer that question, first, Book I serves as a sort of backdrop for the idea of a utopia based on the forming of a new society. This is not typical of a work of fiction because the emphasis is usually placed on the protagonist. In Book II, the text becomes more literary when the narrator begins to tell the story of “Utopus,” the founder of Utopia, who developed this new society (28-9). The novel then displays more elements of fictional narrative. For example, the omniscient narrator describes Utopia and Utopians’ way of life based on his personal experiences:
He that knows of their towns, knows them all, they are so like one another, except where the situation makes some difference. I shall therefore describe one of them; and none is more proper as Amaurot; for as none is more eminent, all the rest yielding in precedence to this, because it is the seat of their supreme council; so there was none of them better known to me, I having lived five years altogether in it. (30)
More’s move to add a personal twist from the narrator’s perspective adds a sense of excitement to the text. The text is not simply didactic; it becomes more entertaining with a personal element added to it.
During one of the seminar’s lectures, the class discussed that literature should both “instruct and entertain,” according to Aristotle. The same holds true for utopian literature. However, More’s text does more instructing than it does entertaining. The opposite can be said for Edward Bellamy’s novel Looking Backward: 2000-1887. For instance, Bellamy’s book starts with the protagonist speaking in the first person (a literary move that most readers of fiction can identify with). What makes this move special for the novel is the detail the narrator shares with the reader about his personal life. For example, the narrator describes his relationship with his fiancée:
In 1887 I came to my thirtieth year. Although still unmarried, I was engaged to wed Edith Bartlett. She, like myself, rode on the top of the coach. That is to say, not to encumber ourselves further with an illustration which has, I hope, served its purpose of giving the reader some general impression of how we lived then, her family was wealthy. (29)
Within the constructs of traditional literary genres, this personal aspect of storytelling makes Bellamy’s text more entertaining for its readers. The didactic aspect in Bellamy’s text is not as prevalent as it were in More’s text. Bellamy’s text engages the reader more even with the
Socratic dialogue (philosophical questioning and answering) that shadows the personal element of the text. Nevertheless, Bellamy’s text is closer to traditional texts because it aims to instruct and to entertain.
The study of utopias has brought literature and fiction together that show utopian literature can work as literary art because of its attempt to mimic traditional fiction. From this perspective, some utopian texts work better than others do. For example, More’s text seems to work less as a literary text because of the lack of a storyline. However, his text works better as a didactic text because of the instructional exposition. Herland seems to fall more along the lines of a traditional text. For instance, the story is told from start to finish in the first person narrative. The more prevalent literary aspect of this story is the frames or portraits that the narrator tells about other characters within the text. Herland’s characters are round. They are not flat characters like those in Utopia.
Studying utopias is a unique experience that allows the scholar to locate other disciplines like history, politics, sociology, science, and gender issues, and their relation to utopian literature. Some of these disciplines work well with utopian literature like history and sociology. While others like science and politics tend to take away from the creativity of utopian literature. However, the interdisciplinary study of utopias and other academic genres does have its place in academics because it challenges and meets literary expectations.
The downside to utopian studies is that its literary dreams do not meet practical realities. For instance, the world is not perfect and its realities are harsh. Utopian worlds are “perfect societies.” Therefore, they are surreal. In a practical reality, problems arise all the time. Literary dreams of any nature cannot fix these problems. Nevertheless, utopian studies tend to frame ideas from other literature that tries to meet practical realities.
“Extra-literary texts” like political speeches, government documents, and scriptures work in part as utopian literature. For example, Dr. King’s “I Have a Dream” speech is both a political statement and scripture that calls for the unity of all people of all colors, races, and religions to come together in sharing a common goal. The dream, however, is just a fantasy—a utopia that many people is still searching for. Furthermore, some utopias are imagined from the ideas of government documents like the Constitution of the United States and other legal documents. This essay purports that scriptures seem to work best as utopian literature, or at least as the foundation for the creation of utopian literature, which is the topic of the essay that follows.
Topic B1:
Millennialism: The Calm after the Storm
Utopian narratives have one element in particular that seems to be a reoccurring theme. That theme is known as “millennialism” (apocalyptic or end-time narrative). To the utopian narrative, millennialism is essential because it is the proponent that warrants change. This change is often the result of some catastrophic apocalyptic event. Millennialism is a part of utopian ideology because it is the vehicle through which utopians concepts emerge. Millennialism is the direct response to some life-changing events that serves as the catalysts to re-discover, rebuild, restructure, edify, or develop utopians societies.
The implication for utopian change that millennialism brings is one of peace and harmony. For example, the apocalyptic event that caused the development of Utopia was Utopus having his soldiers and the inhabitants dig a channel around the island thus separating the island from the rest of the continent (28). The result of this almost god-like event was the founding of a society that did not know wars, hunger, homelessness, or any other of the evils of society. Utopia was an ideal society. It was almost like heaven on earth for its inhabitants. Millennialism tends to offer rewards like this. In her presentation, “Heaven as Utopia?” Cindy Goodson describes this type of reward as “Heaven or Earth” that is shared with God. Utopus was Utopians god and they lived among each other in paradise, Utopia. In the case of Utopia, millennialism brought good change for the people.
Another text that life-changing events sparked and produced a utopia can be found in Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s novel Herland. The narrator speaks on those events that spun Herland a utopia:
They made a brave fight for their existence, but no nation can stand up against what the steamship companies call “an act of God.” While the whole fighting force was doing its best to defend their mountain pathway, there occurred a volcanic outburst, with some local tremors, and the result was the complete filling up of the pass-their only outlet… (54)
The women of Herland had to fight slaves to defend themselves. As a result, the men were killed off. The women of Herland started their new world (55). Herland’s new world did not center on a god; it evolved from the “Queen-Priestess-Mother, (57) who could probably be considered goddess-like. The biological reproduction of the Queen-Priestess-Mother was the most prolific event in Herland’s history because all of the descendents were direct descendents from her. This evolution was the catalyst for the founding of a new nation.
Based on the examples noted above, change as produced by millennialism seems to be a
recurring theme in utopian texts. This change also happens to take place on a large-scale basis. One can see how an apocalyptic event changed the United States in Ernest Callenbach’s novel Ecotopia. For example, Ecoptia consisted of “Washington, Oregon, and Northern California who separated from the United States” (3-4). This separation of those three states (or two and two/thirds states) from the union was a cataclysm for the United States because it affected the economy, the agricultural industry, and industrialization in America (3). However, Ecotopia secession from the union brought a fruitful, peaceful, and collective life style for all Ecotopians. In a sense, the change brought on by millennialism was twofold: it was good for Ecotopia; but it was bad for the United States.
Millennialism and change are at the fore in utopian texts and separation accompanies them. For instance, the digging of a channel marked the idea of separating or isolating Utopia from the rest of the continent. In addition, in Herland separating Herland from the rest of the world was a result of mountains, cliffs, waters, and tremors. As noted earlier, Ecotopia separated from its main body, even though the sea was not a factor as it were in the previous texts. This idea of separation in utopian texts does not seem to be ironic; it is planned because it serves as a tool of millennialism to produce change.
The idea that something good will follow something bad is a central thought behind millennialism within its application to utopian texts. Millennialism seems to originate out of the Book of Revelation, and the Book of Genesis to some degree. In the Book of Revelation, John writes of the apocalypse or end times, and that Christ and his followers will enjoy love, peace, and happiness as he reign on earth and in heaven forever and ever thereafter. Millennialism can be summed up as Satan’s reign on earth for a thousand years, who then is destroyed by Christ, who, in turn will reign forever:
And when the thousand years are expired, Satan shall be loosed out of his prison, and shall go out to deceive the nations which are in the four quarters of the earth, Gog and Magog, to gather them together to battle; the number of whom is as the sand of the sea. (Revelation 20:7-8)
After God defeats Satan, prophesies of the “New Heaven and the New Earth” shall be fulfilled:
And God shall wipe away all tears from their eyes; and there shall be no more death, neither sorrow, nor crying, neither shall there be any more pain: for the former things are passed away.
And he that sat upon the throne said, Behold, I make all things new. (21:4-5)
The change that God promises following the apocalypse is a utopia of immense magnitude. God’s promise truly captures the millennial rapture.
This text has demonstrated that millennialism evokes change in utopian texts that is good. Furthermore, millennialism is quite effective as a literary trope. First, it allows an author the ground to stand on. That is, it provides a way to start and build a story. Second, millennialism can help the development of a plot. Last, most readers know that when the element of millennialism is added to a utopian text—a big change is sure too follow.
The cultural advantages of millennialism may be as prevalent as its literary advantages, at least from this essay’s perspective. For example, most people can relate to some entity or supernatural being that promises a better life after times of suffering. Various people from various cultures have all kind of ways of dealing with chaos that controls their lives at various points. Because of this chaos, evolution is welcomed, for the most part, with opened arms.