LITR 5737: Literary & Historical Utopias
Final Exam Submission 2007
Amy Braselton
July 2, 2007
Part A – Overview Topic
Topic A2 (Objectives 3c and 3f)
The Universal Utopia
When looking at the various cultures and societies that make up this world, it seems that all civilizations want to find, or end up in a utopia created from their own ideals and beliefs. When looking at various forms of literature from around the world, it appears that all civilizations believe in a state of perfection; most societies tend to call that site “heaven” and it is typically reached in the afterlife. This form is not strictly limited to the Western views of civilization and religion. Many Eastern and Middle Eastern societies view the concept of “heaven” as a utopian reward to a life lived according to particular principles and values. Therefore, the idea of utopia cannot be viewed as unique to western civilization; it is instead a universal concept that all civilizations utilize.
Utopia, which originates from the Greek language, initially comes to mean “no place”, or “good place”, and was used as the title of Sir Thomas More’s novel Utopia. Since then, it has come to describe a genre of literature that deals with experimental or planned communities intending to improve or perfect human society (White). But the concept of utopia, a perfect place, has been a part of humanity since civilizations first began to develop. Hammurabi’s laws, which were written and enforced almost 2000 years before the birth of Christ, outline the rules and regulations that a society was to follow in order to create a more stable, perfect environment. One could argue that this is an example of the beginning of man’s attempt to perfect his civilization. Even Christianity’s roots are firmly planted in non-western soil; the laws and lessons of the Old Testament originated from Middle Eastern lands such as Persia (Iran), Babylon (Iraq), Israel, and Egypt.
However, as utopian ideals are formed within societies, particular social structures and identities can be uncovered for better or worse. Social implications and hidden agendas can ultimately make utopias exclusive of certain groups thus causing a paradox; a perfect society can only be perfect if populated by perfect people. This leads to forms of bias and sometimes even racism; distinct groups of people are left out simply because of physical features that vary from the dominant group. But what about the needs of each culture? Perhaps there has to be a group that is left out in order for the utopia to survive. There always seems to be a balance of elements, a ying to each yang or a good to every evil. Or, should race and culture even matter? Utopias tend to believe in collectivism, the idea of the group as a whole. In his 2005 final paper, Robert Ausmus said that, “collectivism is a common practice among utopian movements because it instills in people a distaste for individuality, property, and selfishness. Individuality is detrimental to utopian movements because it hinders peoples’ ability to truly care about the welfare of their neighbors.” In Ayn Rand’s dystopian novel Anthem, we see an example of the collective principle in the extreme. Identity is stripped away from the society except for gender; there are no names, races, or cultures, just a collective “We” that is the body, heart, and soul of the community. “‘We are one in all and all in one. There are no men but only the great WE, One, indivisible and forever.’” Any distinct differences in appearance or thought are immediately punished and suppressed in order to keep with the ideal of unity. In this society, race and culture are considered a part of individuality; the distinctiveness of color of skin, or the application of cultural dynamics would go against the whole idea of collectivism. Instead of creating a unique-less community, these conspicuous differences could create animosity. It becomes a question of which is better: individuality with the chance of racial tension and discrimination, or a collective unit of people without any differences or prejudices.
There are examples of the utopian inclusion in which the concept of collectivism is viewed as positive and unbiased. Malcolm X’s autobiography describes Seventh Day Adventists who would spend time with his family despite the racial barriers of the time. He describes the Adventist meetings’ populations as “a handful of Negroes, from small towns in the area, but I would say that it was ninety-nine percent white people…But they were the friendliest white people I had ever seen.” The millennial beliefs of the Adventists, “that we were living at the end of time, that the world soon was coming to an end”, allowed for them to look past the cultural and racial attitudes and see that everyone was a potential member of the coming utopia.
Ecotopia, by Ernest Callenbach presents a confusing mix of collectivism and individuality when looking at ethnicity. Callenbach devotes the chapter Race in Ecotopia: Apartheid or Equality? to the issue of racial identity and inclusion (or exclusion) to a utopian society. He addresses the separation of the black population in Ecotopia, and their establishment of their own city-states: “They had their own city governments, levied the usual taxes, had their own police courts, their own industries, and owned farms in the nearby countryside.” The conclusion to the situation is a proposal of relocation of the entire black population, which seem reminiscent of the proposals that took place in South Africa. Again, though, the question becomes whether this could be considered as individuality in the extreme, or utopias within utopias? Does a utopia ultimately depend on what a specific culture or ethnic group wants for themselves and no one else?
After looking at the question of ethnicity and culture existing or disappearing within a utopia, the next issue becomes how to include them within the literary genre. To study these issues, evaluation of the needs and issues of various cultures and ethnic groups must be done within their specific literary works. In class, we studied various multicultural works which allowed for us to see how each group sees their own utopia. Each work has a specific goal – education, persuasion – that each culture is attempting to attain. In Martin Luther King’s speech “I Have a Dream”, King’s utopian goal is to unite the Caucasian and African-American citizens of the United States. As Liz Davis’ preview demonstrated, King viewed his utopia in a millennial way – the end of days would also result in the coming together of the two different races. This speech is one of the most effective ways of demonstrating utopia in multicultural literature, but there are other literary works that are good examples. The Islamic Qur’an shows the Middle Eastern concept of Heaven, which in turn is a utopia. In my presentation to the class, I discussed this and compared the Islamic Heaven to the Christian version. I also presented the idea that perhaps these concepts of Heaven are the ultimate utopia, and how despite the changes in attitude and practice within the two religions, the concept of attaining paradise at the end of life has remained concrete.
I believe that all of these elements – culture, ethnicity, and history – are important aspects to consider when studying utopias. Western civilizations belief in itself as the ultimate and supreme leader in knowledge and religion often clouds the study of other regions. There are various layers to utopian studies that have to be examined. It is not right to assume Western ideas are the more correct ones. Islamic, Asian, African-American, and Native-American ideas are just as influential and add a whole other dimension to the study of “perfection”.
Part B – Focused Topic
Topic B2 – Obj. 2d
The Millennial Cycle within Utopian Literature
Utopian literature utilizes the idea of millennialism within the development or progression of a utopian society. Perhaps the connection relates the somewhat religious undertones of the idea of a utopia; the ultimate goal of a utopia is to reach a state of perfection, and what better example to strive for than heaven? However, when millennial aspects appear within a utopia, they seem to go through a certain cycle in order to succeed. This millennial cycle may omit certain parts, but the end always results in a kind of rebirth or awakening. The cycle tends to have a beginning that pertains to the creation of a civilization or society that seems to be near perfection. This creation is followed by some sort of fall – from grace, or from existence – that culminates in the rebirth of the society in a utopian form. All together, this cycle works well in order to present the establishment and credence of the utopia, as well as provides excitement and continuity to the literary work’s plot.
The most predominant of the utopian works that includes the millennial cycle is the Christian Bible. Beginning with the creation of the world and the Garden of Eden, the Bible initiates this cycle. Throughout the subsequent verses, there is the fall from grace by Adam and Eve, who are tempted by the agent of evil, the serpent. Throughout the rest of the Bible, there is the story of attempt at redemption by the Jewish, then Christian groups. In Revelations, there is the fundamental annihilation and then rebirth of the world into “a new heaven and a new earth…On each side of the river stood the tree of life, bearing twelve crops of fruit, yielding its fruit every month. And the leaves of the tree are for the healing of nations” (Rev. 21, 22). The beginning of the Bible shows that humans once had perfection on earth. The Garden of Eden is considered to be paradise, where “the Lord God made all kinds of trees grow out of the ground – trees that were pleasing to the eye and good for food” (Genesis 2:9). However through Eve’s curiosity and the serpent’s persuasion, Adam and Eve are cast out and cursed by God. Their offspring, and the generations that follow strive to redeem the mistake of their mutual ancestor, and thus results in a perpetual dystopia on earth. It is only through the events of Revelations that society as a whole is able to reenter into the land of perfection.
The millennial cycle that appears within the Bible is also used within utopian novels. In the novel Herland, Charlotte Perkins Gilman describes a world of women who have come together to form their own maternal utopian society. Again, following the pattern of a millennial cycle, this society has arisen from the destruction of their former culture. After war upon war, and an uprising of slaves there is only a society of women left. Somehow, through evolution and adaptation, the women are able to reproduce asexually, and the society is repopulated. Thus marks the beginnings of rebirth in literal and metaphorical terms. Through this biological anomaly, the female utopia is able to be established, and until the arrival of the three men, thrives on female attention and devotion alone. The arrival of the three men seems to usher in a new millennium, which causes Herland to become an anomaly itself. The novel not only goes through the first millennial cycle, but actually begins a second. The success of this second cycle is unknown; the characters themselves are the answer, but it is up to the reader to determine the outcome.
Even a dystopian novel relies upon a millennial cycle in order to thrive. In Anthem, by Ayn Rand, the world has become a collective regime that thrives on sameness and the lack of individuality and freedom. Rand’s novel is the answer to the question of what happens when a utopia goes too far and too extreme. Within the pages, the world is shown as a place of horror, where the human spirit and distinctiveness are squashed by the united “We”. This is the fall as it is happening; the utopian garden is the furthest away from reach as it will ever be. However, the protagonist, who begins as Equality 7-2521 and ends the novel as Prometheus, becomes a new Adam. Together with his female counterpart, the Golden One who later becomes Gaea, he creates a new Garden of Eden out of the wilderness. Though there is question of his motive and male chauvinism, he ultimately is the catalyst in beginning the rebirth of the utopia that has strayed so far from its true goal of perfection.
Another novel not examined in class that shows the millennial cycle and reformation of a utopia for young adults and children is the concluding novel in the C.S. Lewis series The Chronicles of Narnia. Though the Christian undercurrent is subtle, The Last Battle is unmistakable in its purpose of demonstrating the events of the Book of Revelations through metaphors. The end result is much like the Bible, a creation of a new earth in which perfection, youth, and adventure reign. The entire series wonderfully illustrates both the mythological and utopian elements that can be found in Christianity. The Last Battle itself would be a good addition to the utopian literature list, though it may be too elementary to be of substantial use in the course.
All together, utopian novels stand on their own two feet in moral and social implications. However, the millennial cycle provides a substantial amount of interest and impact to the plots; human nature responds to primal elements of plot such as sex and violence. Though somewhat lacking in the sexual arena, the millennial cycle usually climaxes with some sort of violent end to a society. All three works discussed use battles to reach the rebirth of their civilizations into a utopia. The millennial cycle is a driving element in the construction and continuation of utopias.