American Literature: Romanticism   Student Midterm Samples 2013 midterm assignment 1. Long Essay

Meryl Bazaman

Extending Individualism in American Romanticism

Subtitle:  American Romanticism as Individualism in Nietzsche’s “Live Dangerously” and Ayn Rand’s Anthem

            A core component of American Romanticism is that of individualism. Evidenced in the character Hawkeye found in James Fenimore Cooper’s The Last of the Mohicans and Henry David Thoreau’s American romanticist narrative account Resistance to Civil Government. Individualism exists as traits of intelligence, energy as knowledge applied into action, as well as independence and the ability to self-determine one’s future based on higher abstractions as opposed to mechanical action. However, when this concept of individualism is extended into Nietzsche’s “Live Dangerously,” it undergoes a transformation. With man becoming the god, man’s ability to realize his godhood becomes abiding to a higher power. Furthermore, man’s individuality becomes more deeply pitted against an uncaring society. These additions and adherence to American Romanticism texts on individualism are then found in Ayn Rand’s account of Prometheus in Anthem. While Nietzschean themes dominate Rand’s work, Rand still appears to abide to some of the forms of individualism outlined by Cooper and Thoreau.

            Which leads to the question – how do we begin to define individualism outlined by Cooper? Individualism is particularly prevalent in Cooper’s The Last of the Mohicans. In fact, Hawkeye’s individuality is made immediately apparent in his initial encounter with Cora and her party. Immediately, Hawkeye distinguishes himself from not only Chingachgook and Uncas as “a white man without a cross” (Cooper, Chap 7, Par 5) but also the Munro women and their male companions.  Therefore, Hawkeye, as a self-determining individual, believes he must separate from civilized society and its groupings. Through this choice of separating himself from Cora by describing himself as “white” and not of American, British, or French descent, Hawkeye distinguishes himself as a self not directly affiliated with a particular nationality, a self outside of uniform labels. However, in a seemingly contradictory way, by indicating his male “whiteness” and “uncrossed” genealogy, Hawkeye indicates not only his distinct elevated status but also maintains to the others that he has the rights to obtain the privileges of advancement and mobility based on his affiliation to whiteness. Therefore, through these seemingly contradictive measures, Hawkeye, by declaring his individual description, frees himself to align with those he wishes, thus demonstrating his individualistic temperament, while reaffirming his right to have that individuality by being “uncrossed” and “white.”

            Yet, how an individual differentiates himself from others is insufficient for fully encapsulating what it means to exhibit individualism in American Romanticism; that is, in order to be considered a romantic individual, an individual must exhibit intelligence and energy. Cooper’s Hawkeye exhibits these two attributes when he is identified as a man with a manner that “was seriously impressive” (Chap 7, Par 17) and willing to meet the enemy “with the energy of his hardy nature.” (Chap 7,Par 17) Hawkeye’s individualism amalgamates sturdy physicality with intellect; that is he is equipped with a visceral, bodily reasoning. Exhibiting, through his interactions with members of Heyward’s entourage, what could pass for genius in naturalist, sociological, and psychological knowledge along with a seemingly inhuman physical endurance by which to employ them, Hawkeye, then, arguably becomes a representative of heroic individualism. Able to accomplish great feats of intellect and endurance, Hawkeye noting his heroic American Romantic individualism declares: “flesh and blood are not always the same” (Chap 13, Par. 14).  

            Furthermore, Hawkeye’s differentiation between individuals and value of differentiating oneself as an individual is also witnessed in Thoreau’s American romanticist narrative account Resistance to Civil Government. In his critique of the State, Thoreau concludes with this impassioned assertion: “There will never be a really free and enlightened State until the State comes to recognize the individual as a higher and independent power, from which all its own power and authority are derived…” (Thoreau, 44). That is according to Thoreau the individual is the nexus of which all romanticism functions. Being capable of self-determinism, power, and intellect, Thoreau’s individual exemplifies the ideal man that all true individuals have the capacity to be. In order to support this assessment of the virtuous individual, Thoreau contrasts the individual with the masses that blindly adhere to the State: “The mass of men serve the state thus, not as men mainly, but as machines, with their bodies.” (7) Unlike Hawkeye or Thoreau’s individual, these men do not possess distinguishing individualistic markers that separate them from either the rabble or those in positions of less power. They are incapable of reasoning and thus their physicality is mechanical not noble like Hawkeye’s reason-driven physicality. Since they do not attempt to think beyond route command, by ignoring to abide to “the higher law” (24) of abstract reasoning, derived from functioning based on higher principles, they are not individuals. Hence, in order to embody the individualism of American Romanticism, Cooper and Thoreau agree that one revere being an individual and possess traits such as power, intelligence and the ability to self-determine.  

            However, can American Romanticism principles of individualism be applied to Nietzsche? And if so what features of Nietzsche’s essay “Live Dangerously” would best convey individualism? I would argue that the section titled The Madman offers features consistent with the American Romanticist individualism of Cooper and Thoreau. The madman, for example, is a man apart from society; he is an individual, like Cooper’s Hawkeye and Thoreau, unafraid to adhere to his own higher truth however poorly it is received by the masses he encounters. Using the force of his incessant cry (Nietzsche, 126) and physical theatrics, the madman actually conveys an individualistic epistemology; that is after expressing his beliefs of God’s death; the madman actually conceives of consequences and reasons why the message is not being received (126-7). Despite what the crowd notes as his erratic behavior, the mad man expresses his truth, offers an assessment of effects resulting from that truth, and concludes why his message has not been received. The madman, then, is guided by reason and his own higher truth. 

            In addition, Nietzsche’s madman affirms the message individualism found in American Romanticism offers concerning the power of man and how man perceives that power. In the madman’s declaration of ramifications, the madman asks: “Must not we ourselves becomes gods simply to seem worthy of it?” (126). However, given the context of madman’s individual belief and its validity under Thoreau’s assertion, the madman’s question then is not actually a question but an assertion about human individuality. In transforming men to little gods, Nietzsche makes each individual the holiest of holies. That is Nietzsche, through the character of the madman, expresses the notion that the individual is all-powerful, all knowing, and even can embody the purposeful physicality and mind amalgamation of the heroic. That is why individuals must be notified because according to Nietzsche; the individual will “be part of a higher history than all history hitherto” (126) once individuals rise above the uncaring multitude and understand their individual power.   

            Nietzsche’s features of individualism are also apparent in Ayn Rand’s Anthem. Employing Nietzsche’s addition to American romanticism, which is the concept of knowledge as madness in society, Rand’s protagonist Prometheus asserts: 

                We, Equality 7-2521, were not happy in those years in the Home of the Students. It was not that the learning was too hard for us. It was that the learning was too easy. That is a great sin, to be born with a head, which is too quick. It is not good to be different from our brothers, but it is evil to be superior to them. The Teachers told us so, and they frowned when they looked upon us. (Rand, 21)

Like Cooper and Thoreau’s individual, Prometheus is endowed with intelligence. However, mirroring Nietzsche’s madman, Prometheus’s experience is one where his knowledge pits him against society yet in a more severe way. While Nietzsche’s madman is allowed to carry on largely ignored by the local populace as he enters its churches (127), Prometheus, as member of a dystopian society, is reprimanded for being “different from our brothers” and must endure having all facets of his life controlled by social indoctrination (21). Unlike Cooper’s Hawkeye, who can choose to engage the society he pleases on his own terms of individual identity, or Thoreau’s individual who can rebel against blindly adherent masses, Rand’s Prometheus must abide to the absolute dictums of the social collective or risk expulsion. In fact, there is no option even available for Prometheus’s knowledge to function within the society or potential leverage Prometheus can legitimately claim through attempting to function independently. As long as he is exceptionally knowledgeable, Prometheus’s knowledge is considered a defect within his society.

Still, Rand’s Prometheus does attempt to exert his individuality through the demonstration of his invention of electricity.  In his meeting with the society’s scholars, Prometheus offers the following account:

We give you the power of the sky!’ we cried. We give you the key to the earth! Take it, and let us be one of you, the humblest among you. Let us all work together, and harness this power, and make it ease the toil of men. Let us throw away our candles and our torches. Let us flood our cities with light. Let us bring a new light to men!’

But they looked upon us, and suddenly we were afraid. For their eyes were still, and small, and evil.  (70-71).

Again, Prometheus exhibits his intellect energetically both in action and applied reality. And while this is consistent with descriptions of Cooper’s Hawkeye individualism and one of the defining aspects of Thoreau’s individuality, it also appears to be an extension of Nietzsche’s idea of the individual being considered mad by society. Despite demonstrating his invention and applying reasoning to his interactions with the scholars, Prometheus observes that the scholar’s reactions are best summarized in their “still,” “small,” and “evil” eyes. This indicates that despite his reasoning, despite whatever innovation he can provide, Prometheus is “the mad man.” His bloody clothes and lack of adherence to the law is the only thing his society will adhere to. Like Nietzsche’s madman, his individual reasoning is obscured by the general perceptions of others. Yet, like the Cooper and Thoreau texts demonstrating American romanticism component of individualism, Prometheus maintains his intelligence, energy, and independence, even, to the extent like Hawkeye and Thoreau, leaving industrialized civilization for ventures and pursuits into the wilderness (104) where individualism in aptitude and action can function more freely. 

Unifying setting (wilderness or city), individualism in American Romanticism extends beyond American texts. While identified by Cooper and Thoreau as that which allows one self-determination and is thought to correspond with the possession of power, energy (knowledge with physicality allowing for application), and reasoning within it that allows one to choose in a way that is more than mechanical, applications to Nietzsche demonstrate how this individualism is adapted and expanded upon. Through Nietzsche’s applications, American Romanticism’s individualism distorts how higher power is perceived by making man the god. Furthermore, Nietzsche adds the dimension of pitting the knowledgeable individual against mindless society in a way where the society does not register the individual’s contributions as sane. These additions are replicated in Ayn Rand’s Anthem through the character of Prometheus, where his knowledge and desire for self-determination suffer due to the restrictions of a collectivist society attempting to enforce equalitarian principles absolutely. While Rand’s novelette does infuse the ideas of the American Romanticists; Nietzsche’s influences on romantic individualism must also be taken into account in order to fully extend the romance of individualism.