3. Historically, Romanticism is associated primarily with European literary traditions and cultural values, and the American writers most typically associated with this literary movement (e. g., Cooper, Poe, Emerson, Whitman, Fitzgerald) are of European descent. In America and especially the United States, however, Romanticism must adapt to a multi-racial nation. In turn, writers from non-European races must consider Romantic themes and genres as options for their own compositions.

            Write an essay involving three writers representing the three major early American races: American Indian, European, African.

            Consider how race either complicates or absorbs the formulas of Romanticism. Reflect how such investigations transform our conception of Romanticism. Is it a style based on universal truths, or a set of historical and cultural conventions, or a shifting set of features that reflect the desire and perspective of the observer? How does the usefulness of the term “Romanticism” change?

·        For a European-American writer, choose a writer who represents race more or less directly, like Stowe or Cooper, but if it suits your purposes, you might choose a writer who treats the issue less directly or even apparently ignores it (e.g., Irving, Whitman, or Fitzgerald).

·        For African American writers, choose among Douglass, Jacobs, McKay, Hurston, Toomer, Cullen, or Hughes.

·        For Native American writers or texts, consider Zitkala-Sa, Black Elk, William Apess, “Iroquois Creation Story,” “The Cherokee Memorials,” or Simon J. Ortiz.

·        If these lists leave out someone from our reading, use your judgment to add appropriate names as necessary.

·        You may discuss more than three writers, but many more might dilute productive cross-racial tension you might achieve by comparing fewer writers from different racial contexts.

Sample Answers

The universality of Romanticism leads itself easily to the possibility of adaptation by many different cultures.  Nowhere is this more evident than in American Romanticism.  The mix of European American, Native American , and African American has had a noticeable effect on the standard set by the European literary traditions and cultural values.  The evolution of American Romanticism has led to complications in depictions of race, transformation in the depictions of romanticism, and a reliance on the historical and cultural norms of the time period of the work.  This adaptation of Romanticism represents a new and different type of American Romanticism that can be a useful change or a detrimental change depending on your perspective.

There are many complications that arise when a text becomes associated with American Romanticism and each must be dealt with.  The first question that arises is whether  or not the text is romanticism because of the readers perception of the race involved or the authors intent.  Authors such as James F. Cooper created stories that relied on the romanticism of the Indians as a whole by the reader.  Indians as noble and nature loving people is a romantic vision held exclusively by the European Americans and not representative of the Indians themselves.  The creation of a romantic myth around a race must be avoided and it is this complication that leads to the misinterpretation of some otherwise realistic literature into romantic literature.  Other authors such as Jacobs and Zitkala-Sa who are of different races can also be drawn into the trap of romanticizing their race instead of presenting a romantic idea that is more representative of romanticism in general.

The ability of Jacobs and Zitkala-Sa to transform American Romanticism by the inclusion of real race and culture differences is what makes American Romanticism unique in the world of literature.  The ability of the authors to represent their culture and their race as romantic without going to the standard stereotypical European versions of their race is what separates our multi-racial nation from Europe.  This transformation is not without its difficulties that alter almost to the point of unrecognizable the ideal of Romanticism.  Each of these races be it European, Native American, or African American brings to story telling a little of their past and their deep rooted culture.  It is the fact that so much of the African American and Native American peoples have been subject to so much suffering that the inclusion of realism into romanticism in their writings has become normal.  This is a transition that has altered the classical description of Romanticism and led to changes in storytelling that have transformed American Romanticism into a mere cousin to the European version of Romanticism.

Each author brings their culture and their experiences to their writings.  In some cases the tales they write are universal and their race has no bearing on the text that they produce.  In those cases readers must be certain that they do not read too much into the text and create romanticism where there is none.  Zitkala-Sa is an excellent example of a Native American Author who brings her culture to her writing and transforms the definition of American Romanticism.  American Romanticism tends to romanticize the Native American culture as noble savages and nature lovers.  Zatkala-Sa gives a much more realistic representation of the Romanticism of the Native American by depicting the characters as real representative of the human race in general as well as being Native Americans.  It is the setting and the underling tale of desire for the hunter and for nature that are classic romantic themes easily depicted in many other stories.  The native American culture is the backdrop for the classic romantic tale it is not the Native Americans themselves that are being Romanticized it is the genuine tale of desire and loss.  Harriet Jacobs is another author whose African American heritage influences the depiction of Romanticism.  The significance of her culture cannot be overlooked in the telling of her story.  While the basic romantic themes of desire, loss, transcendence still exist in her tale the cultural references alter its depiction of American Romanticism.  Only in an African American tale written by an African American can the level of detail and realism of the culture be depicted.  The realistic nature of the hardships endured by both the characters in Jacobs and Zikala-Sa stories irrevocably alter American Romanticism.  Literature written by the culture it is depicted grasps inherently at the hardships and settings that have left an indelible mark on their culture.  Theses realistic themes change Romanticism in a manner that cannot be easily passed over.  The reader is forced throughout the text to recall these hardships an thus the romantic nature of the tale is often lost.

American Romanticism in our multi-racial nation has a very perspective based definition.  If you are European American like Cooper your believe the stereotypes of African Americans, Native Americans and romantics these and not the true culture of the people.  However, if you are a member of these other cultures you realize the lack of reality to the stereotypes and depict a more realistic version of your culture.  The definition of realistic then comes into doubt because realistic is based on perspective of the individual.  It is the issue of perspective that creates the greatest problem for American Romanticism in such a multi-cultural nation.  As April Davis states “…romantic ideals can be adapted across lines of color, race, and culture”.  But these depictions of romantic characters will always be based on the perspective of the author writing the text.  Even authors who are of the culture or race being depicted may be influenced by the standard European American perspective. Their texts may not in the end reflect the true culture of their people.  One must remember in all these many stories that they are just that they are stories.  They are representations that are imprisoned by the historical and cultural perspectives of their time.  They cannot be expected to be true and unarguable representatives of anything but the author’s perspective. [MB]

Examining how Romanticism adapts to a nation consisting of multiple races reveals that it contains many universal themes that all races experience, that many aspects of it are flexible, and that writers may include some elements of Romanticism without having to include all. Some features of Romanticism, including rebellion and the individual in nature, reveal new or enhanced meaning for African-Americans and Indians. The individual in nature is not only similar, it is ‘more’ true, as the Indians epitomize the individual in nature. For African-Americans, the quest was not only the heart of most of their early literature, the quest for freedom was, in reality, in the hearts of all African-Americans. Romanticism’s desire and loss, however, remains the same universal theme. The presentation of the issues facing the Indians and African-Americans complicates, deepens, enriches, and extends aspects of Romanticism.

James Fenimore Cooper, an American writer of European descent, directly addresses some racial issues in The Last of the Mohicans. He focuses directly on the issue of Indians and indirectly on African-Americans. In doing so, he rebels, however subtly, against mainstream ideas. Cooper adapts to the multi-racial community by raising questions. What is the place in society of a person of mixed blood? He also raises questions of multi-racial relationships, both among friend and love relations. Revisiting Cooper after reading non-European literature reveals that many of the ideas supporting the actions and attitudes of his characters reflect “a set of historical and cultural conventions” that would ultimately change, reflecting social progress, while other ideas are universal in nature.

The universal idea of desire and loss, central to Romanticism, is a main underlying theme in The Last of the Mohicans. The loss is a mourning of the soon to be extinct Mohicans. Most of the desire involving personal relationships remains subtle, as if being portrayed as less important than the desire of an alternate ending for the Mohican tribe, and in the process implying the tragedy of all Indian tribes.

Hawkeye’s place in between the whites and the Indians exemplifies Romanticism’s idea of the individual standing out, separated from the masses. Hawkeye, who lives up to his name, has a vision of truth that throughout the novel, others lack. For instance, at Cora and Uncas’ funeral, he is the only white person who understands that the mourning Indian women are hinting at the possibility of a relationship between Cora and Uncas in the afterlife. He is white but remains an outsider (by choice and by nature). A woodsman, serving as knight of the forest in a forest romance, he seems to be more closely tied to Indians, but because he is white, he will always stand outside the circle of any tribe. He also seems to show a particular kind of wisdom; in an Emersonian manner, he gathers wisdom along the path of his journey, resulting in an even greater distance between him and the other whites.

A quest is at the center of the novel. A group of Indians and whites embark on a quest: with Hawkeye and Uncas as guides, they journey toward a fort to deliver Cora and Alice to their father, Captain Munro, though because of the warfare, their chances seem fairly hopeless from the beginning. Each single-mindedly pursues the quest at all costs.

Elements of American Romanticism pervade Mohicans; indeed, Mohicans seems to exemplify Romanticism in nearly every aspect, including rebellion, romantic quest, desire and loss, a focus on nature, and individualism. The answers to the questions Cooper raises regarding racial status and inter-racial relationships reflect American social conventions that ultimately change. However, the change only deepens and enriches Romanticism. The potential loss of the relationship between Cora and Uncas seems greater now, in a cultural atmosphere that considers the idea acceptable.

The slave narratives reveal the dreams and, ultimately, the quest of gaining freedom. At the same time, they are struggling to achieve individualism, hence the slave narrative, a single-minded appeal for freedom. Harriet Jacobs’ story, “Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl,” illustrates the struggles and ultimate success, though qualified, of a quest for freedom, reflecting, contradicting, and revising several aspects of Romanticism.

            The Romantic ideas of desire and loss underscore Linda’s circumstances. Discussing Linda’s desires, April Davis, in her final exam, shares, “Though some elements of desire and loss such as wanting her mother to return, the death of her good mistress, and her romance with the free man come and go throughout her life, the desire for freedom permeates her life at every turn” (Davis). An early episode in her tale reveals significant desire and loss. One desire, her dream to marry the free, “young colored carpenter,” also serves to “support [her] through many trials” (817). When she has no choice but to send away the free black man who wanted to buy her freedom for her and marry her, she loses not only the possibility of freedom, but the dream of love and freedom as well (819).  “Lonely,” “desolate,” “desperate,” she “made a plunge into the abyss” (819-20). The intensity of the loss corresponds with the intensity of the desire.

            Harriet’s story contradicts American Romanticism in the heroine’s relationship to nature, which is not on her side and does not correspond with her. Alone, pregnant, shamed, she sits under the shining stars, reflecting, “How they mocked me, with their bright, calm light” (823). The stars mocking of her demonstrates her misalignment with nature, illustrating and underscoring the unnaturalness of slavery.

            With total rejection of the “here and now,” and spurred on by her intense desire for freedom, she rebels against her very real circumstance of being owned, both directly against being owned by another human being and indirectly, by taking control (as much as possible) of her sexual life. After apologizing to her reading audience and pleading for understanding of her principles, she asserts herself, choosing to give herself to the white, free, unmarried, educated, eloquent Mr. Sands. She explains, “There is something akin to freedom in having a lover who has no control over you” (821). But rebellion is another motivation for her deciding to sleep with Mr. Sands: revenge against her owner, the tyrant, Mr. Flint. Her hope is that the angered Mr. Flint will sell her to Mr. Sands. A romantic heroine, a brave-hearted teenage girl, rebels against slavery with a plan that relies on the goodness of a man she barely knows. But even the slightest chance to be able to flee from the “here and now” is worth the risk.

            On her quest for freedom, she finds a temporary, paradoxical success before she ultimately gains permanent freedom. Needing to hide from her owner, she lives in the cramped quarters of an attic of a shed (823). She is free as long as she remains in a dark, hot, insect-infected nine foot long, seven foot wide, three foot high room. When she finally transcends the bonds of slavery through Mrs. Bruce’s purchase of her, she proclaims, “I and my children are now free!” (833), yet the freedom, ironically, though “permanent,” is limited. She remains in Mrs. Bruce’s house, working for her, holding on to her desire, still “long[ing] for a hearthstone of [her] own, however humble” (833). Thus, her quest for freedom, romantic in nature, ends happily but not completely. 

The “Cherokee Memorials,” essentially petitions to the government, appealing to remain on their land, illustrate Romanticism in the sense of desire and loss, but differ in the quest to quench the desire and prevent the foreseeable loss. Motivated by the very unromantic idea of gold, the U.S. government drove this settled, organized Indian group off their land, causing approximately one-third of the 12,000 Indians to lose their lives (573). In direct opposition to romanticism’s idea of ‘anything but the here and now,’ the Cherokees pleaded for the privilege of remaining to live in their ‘here and now.’

The same profound desire and loss found in Romanticism is found in the “Memorials.” The Cherokees’ intense desire to keep their land anticipates the forthcoming devastating loss. Indicating the extent of their fear, that they are fighting for the continuance of their tribe, they plea, “preserve us from ruin and extinction” (574). Separated from the “civilized” masses, in both lifestyle and language, aligned with the romantic idea of the individual in nature, the Cherokees were, in their own words, “attached to our land” (580).

The Cherokees’ desire to remain on their land results in a quest quite different from the typical romantic one. Instead of desiring to cross a border, they desire to stay on their own lands. They reject the idea of the forced journey, a mandatory crossing of borders. Powerless against the government, their only option for rebellion comes in the form of pleas (573).  Willing to deny their true natures, they even offer to attempt to cross a social and racial boundary, promising that if they are allowed to remain, they will embrace ‘white’ ideas, religion, and laws.

            This complicated, inverted, ironic version of the romantic quest lacks the goal of transcendence; instead, their goal is to maintain the status quo, desiring no physical traversing of borders or spiritual enlightenment. Hence, Romanticism is altered. In the historical context, the Trail of Tears must have been accepted to enough of society that it was allowed to occur. However, viewing their situation from a Romantic lens enhances meaning and further highlights the absurdity and injustice of their tragic plight and reveals that the cultural convention that allowed it to happen has changed.

The term Romanticism remains useful to describe and categorize particular features of or entire pieces of writing.  With various manifestations, race affects American Romanticism. Viewing the slave narratives and the “Memorials” from the context of Romanticism underscores the already obvious truth of the inhumane injustice served to both groups, and viewing Cooper’s Romanticism from the context of racial issues dramatically alters the answers to many of Cooper’s questions. [JT]