LITR 5535: American
Romanticism
Sample Student Research Project, fall 2003
Sheila Newell
Dr. Craig White
21 November 2003
JOURNAL: How the
Bible Works in American Literature
Introduction:
I am fascinated with the Bible in literature. My curiosity about how the Bible works within literature begins with my graduate studies. Throughout the readings in my previous graduate classes and in this class, I have noticed Biblical motifs and imagery. And it is those Biblical allusions that interest me and will be the focus of this journal. To keep the journal within the specified boundaries of the syllabus, although I think you will see that more exploration is warranted, I will focus specifically on Thoreau, Hawthorne, and Poe’s use of the Bible. Moreover, I particularly like the way Michelle Glenn organized her journal for her readers, on the web page for Summer 2002, Romanticism 5535, thematically, so I will use her method of organization too. Through this journal, I will explore and attempt to gain an understanding of how and why American authors incorporate the Bible into their work.
To begin my quest, I start with
biographies. I am hoping that biographies will help me understand the personal
Bible knowledge of the authors. It seems reasonable to me that one might gain a
better understanding of how to interpret the Biblical allusion if one
understands how the author interprets and understands the Bible. Understanding
the author’s background might then suggest how one interprets a particular
work, religiously, aesthetically or both. As mentioned previously, the authors I
am particularly interested in are
Thoreau, Hawthorne, and Poe, so I will look at their biographies. Since I am not
making a research project of individual authors, and since I am trying to gain
an understanding as to their educational experience, I will use online
biographies to help me understand the Biblical knowledge of Thoreau, Hawthorne,
and Poe.
After biographies, I explore texts that discuss how Biblical imagery and motifs work within a piece of literature. I use texts that discuss European Romanticism and American Romanticism. I research European Romanticism because just as I reach back to understand an author’s past, I also reach back to understand Romanticism’s past. I want to understand how Europeans’ use the Bible in their works and how their usage might translate to American literature. These texts will help me gain a nearly accurate, if not complete, understanding of how and why author’s use the Bible in their work. I focus on: How do Biblical imagery and motifs fit into with Romanticism? How do Biblical passages change as they are filtered into Romanticism? What gets retained and what gets lost, and what is newly emphasized and what is played down?
Looking back: European Romantics and Biblical
methodology:
Avani, Abraham Albert. The Bible and Romanticism. Paris: Mouton, 1969.
I start my research with Europe
because it seems that European Romantics influence American Romantics. I wonder
how European writers use the Biblical text in their work and
if American writers use Biblical devices differently than their European
counterparts. Avani’s discussion focuses on the use of the Bible in
German and French Romantic poetry. His opening paragraphs suggest that the Bible
is a foundational text for Western civilization, which suggests the importance
of Biblical literature. According to Avani, Martin Luther’s translation of the
Bible “unified the literary language” (15). Martin Luther is a German monk
who posted ninety-five complaints against the church on October 31, 1517. And
those complaints eventually helped to start a revolt against the Catholic Church
known as The Protestant Reformation. Luther’s Bible translation brought to
light the “expressions and images of the Bible” (15). And so as the
Bible’s vocabulary fuses into the German society and is used for educational
purposes, it also becomes a literary device for writers. The Bible’s psalms
style is imitated, according to Avani. Those suffering through the Thirty
Years’ War imitate the Psalms by expressing their sorrow and confusion over
the destruction and suffering of a people (16). Additionally, a German poet,
Gryphius, imitates the Biblical work of “Ecclesiastes” as it expresses, in
poetical form, the vanity of “all human achievements” (16). In his text,
Avani cites numerous aesthetic examples of Germanic use of the Bible. However,
as the Romantic period begins the Germans move away from the Bible: “the
German Romantics criticize and wish to rid themselves of traditions and
restrictions impeding, they believe, their self-expression. Opposing classic
rules […] they turn to new poetic models, to Shakespeare, Caldreron and Dante,
but not the Bible” (22). The Germans are not turning away from the theology of
the Bible, but they are turning away from its classical limitations. However,
“the German Romantic is certainly apt to use Biblical allusions and
reinterpret them symbolically, as he does with other mythologies” (25).
Turning from the Bible suggests Germans must find other inspirational texts from
which to draw inspiration, so they turn to the orient
(the original meaning of this word means “to turn towards the east”) “for
its religious and mystical aspects” (23).
At this point we will turn to Avani’s discussion on French Romantics. Chateaubriand, a Christian, influenced Romanticism; his defense of the Bible, as a literary piece, suggests the Bible’s aesthetic worth as well as its religious veracity. However, even as Chateaubriand believed in the religious truth of the Bible, his contemporaries did not. Nevertheless, the connection to the Bible, according to Avani, is that Lamartine, Vigny and Hugo still saw the aesthetic value of the Bible. These Romantic poets “often use congenial characters from literature and history to project into and symbolize by them their problems, attitudes and feelings. This symbolism directs, Vigny, Lamartine and Hugo to many Old Testament characters, to Moses, Samson, Job and many others” (100). Avani goes on to suggest that Biblical myths “make it easier for French Romantic poets to introduce the supernatural” (276). The French Romantics use the Bible as an aesthetic device creating exotic symbolism and utilizing its pure poetical functions (276). Examining both French and German poetry from an aesthetic perspective, I found that the French explore from outside the predominant theological boundaries; whereas, the German Romantics explore from inside the predominant theological boundaries, utilizing the Bible to invoke allusions and imagery (281). M-M-M this might suggest how Emerson’s microcosm/macrocosm point of view comes into existence (but that is another study). However, at the very least the study of European Romanticism suggests how the Bible influences American Romanticism in the use of myths, allusion, imagery and symbolism. Nevertheless, one might say, I may understand how the Bible influences European Romanticism, but how does the European’s use of Biblical literature cross the ocean? Or does it? To answer this question I turn to biographies.
Crossing
Borders: European Biblical methodology influences American Romanticism:
I am wondering how and if American Renaissance authors incorporate European Romanticism into American Romantic works. From the previous text, I have learned that some German authors believe the Bible to be an authentic revelation of God and revere it as such, which suggests the Germans are careful how they use the Bible aesthetically. However, there are some French authors who move away from believing that the Bible is a revelation from God. They believe, instead, that the Bible is a literary text with no special claims; consequently, its ideas are fused with other mythologies creating new myths, thus expanding the aesthetic value of the Biblical text.
However, it seems to me that before one incorporates a European Biblical methodology one must know the Bible, or at least be familiar with its parts. So before I examine the European connection, I need to understand how the American Renaissance authors acquire their Bible knowledge. To answer this question I will turn to the Internet. Since I am not studying the life of these authors, I feel that the University of Houston–Clear Lake’s online library research links will answer my questions satisfactorily.
Using the Student Resource
Center and the Britannica Encyclopedia links, I begin.
My goal is to understand the culture these authors grew up in. Their
culture is key, in my opinion, in understanding how they came about writing the
way they write. Thoreau, Hawthorne and Poe are contemporaries of each other,
which suggests they are culturally similar. Of course, the first thing we know
is that they are born in America. Additionally, the birthplaces are in close
proximity to each other, as well. I think the geography similarity is important
to keep in mind because today we do not think of a small America. However, in
the 19th century America was geographically small. Our authors are
all born within 15-20 miles of each other. According to Britannica online,
Salem, Massachusetts, the birthplace of Nathaniel Hawthorne, is 16 miles
northeast of Boston, Massachusetts. And Concord, Massachusetts, the birthplace
of Henry David Thoreau, is 20 miles northwest of Boston, Massachusetts. And
Edgar Allan Poe is born in Boston, Massachusetts. Moreover, chronologically,
their ages span only thirteen years. So with their
close social proximities, ages and geography, it seems likely to me that their
cultural similarity affects their style of writing.
Turning to research on the Student Resource Center link, I look for education similarities between these men. I learn from two book reviews of The Story of A: The Alphabetization of America from The New England Primer to The Scarlet Letter by Patricia Crain that “the Primer [seems] to be a faithful representation of ‘American Puritanism.’ ” Moreover, according to another web site, “Schooling, Education, and Literacy, In Colonial America” the New England Primer was required reading in school. Because the New England Primer is required, I feel it is important to begin a study on that text. I get most of my information from Britannica online Student Encyclopedia, but I also include other online sites.
*****
“New England Primer, the.” Britannica Student Encyclopedia. 2003. Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. 15 Nov, 2003 http://www.search.eb.com/ebi/article?eu=356111
Puritans use Biblical literature as an educational tool for the America of the 18th and 19th centuries. According to the Britannica Student Encyclopedia, The New England Primer, which was printed between 1686 and 1690, was the core curriculum in American schools for two hundred years; it was primarily a “religious schoolbook.” Another web site, “History of American Education Web Project” http://www.nd.edu/~rbarger/www7/puritans.html, maintained by Professor Robert N. Barger, adds more to my understanding as to why American Renaissance authors are very familiar with Biblical literature. Barger credits the Puritans as the first to write books specifically for children. Children’s books were meant to help a child understand how to get to heaven: “Cotton Mather (the Puritan who was so influential during the Salem witch-hunts in New England) wrote a book called Spiritual Milk for Boston Babes in Either England, Drawn from the Breasts of Both Testaments for Their Souls’ Nourishment” (Norton 48). This text and Pilgrim’s Progress by John Bunyan were also required reading for colonial children (Norton 49). These required texts, in addition with The New England Primer, suggests that colonial children were inundated with religious works based on biblical principles. One might wonder why religious education was fundamental to the Puritan society. I remember from an undergraduate course that many children did not live into adulthood in colonial America; thus, the Puritans made sure that children understood the Biblical route to heaven. Since religious upbringing was fundamental to a Puritan society, and since the Puritan influence expands two hundred years and more, it is easy to understand how American Renaissance authors come to use the Bible as a literary tool in their work. The Bible’s ideas permeate their education, so it was a natural evolutionary development to incorporate the images and stories from a literary text with which they were so familiar. Understanding their early education, I now focus on their college education and answering the question: how do European Biblical methodologies cross the ocean to America?
It seems logical to me that as the American’s attend college and adopt Romanticism philosophy, they then fuse the Bible and the ideas from Romanticism into American literature.
As it is for most who attend universities, it seems likely that the American university experience grows the American Renaissance authors past cultural boundaries. According to an online article from John Hopkins Guide To Literary Theory & Criticism, “American Theory and Criticism -Nineteenth Century,” “American writers were introduced to German ideas by British Romantics, especially William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and Thomas Carlyle.” Consequently, it is through their college experience that they gain knowledge of European literature, and then incorporate European styles and ideas into their work, specifically the European use of oriental literature, which effectively creates exotic imagery. As I have again used the term “oriental” one should know that the word corresponds to Biblical literature as well as other eastern literature. The term “oriental” refers to Near East rather than Far East (for a geographical illustration see fig. 1). The American Renaissance authors incorporate Biblical and other eastern religions into their work just as their European predecessors do. However, the interest of this journal is Biblical literature, so I will not delve any further into non-biblical literature. After exploring American education, I think I understand how American Renaissance authors come to use Biblical literature. However, now I will explore how Biblical literature affects American Romanticism.
Romantic Ideology: The Effect of the Bible on
American Romanticism:
In this section, I will explore several scholarly texts and web sites that will, hopefully, give me conclusive answers to my questions. I explore texts that help me understand how American Renaissance authors incorporate the Biblical ideas into their works. I begin with a text by editor Roland Bartel.
*****
Bartel, Roland ed. James S.
Ackerman, Thayer S. Warshaw. Biblical Images in
Literature.Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1975.
This text gives me helpful insight into how American Renaissance authors use the Bible in their work. The text is a compilation of articles that “examine the effect of the Bible on selected works of literature” (13). Bartel, like Avani our earlier scholar, writes in his introduction that the Bible is “among the most important achievement[s] of Western culture” (9). He believes that since authors use the Bible to “drive home a thematic point or a character trait” (14), it proves that the Bible is “indispensable [when it comes] to the formation and understanding of our literature” (14). This book examines several stories and authors, but I will only focus on two authors, Thoreau and Hawthorne. According to Bartel, Thoreau uses the Biblical passages to describe his thoughts and feelings (14), suggesting psychological implications. Alluding to the words of Solomon, Thoreau writes: “Pray tell me any thing new that has happened to a man any where on this globe” (Norton Anthology 902). The actual words from Solomon are: “The thing that hath been, it is that which shall be; and that which is done is that which shall be done: and there is no new thing under the sun” (Ecclesiastes 1:9). In the Thoreau passage, Thoreau observes the same social condition that Solomon observes many centuries earlier. The despairing tone suggests the psychological implication. Thoreau is frustrated with man’s lack of social responsibility. Men continue to do the same things, nothing changes. Bartel writes: “studying biblical allusions is an effective way of opening up a work of literature. A successful allusion operates like a metaphor” (14). So trying to use Bartel’s logic, Thoreau’s allusion to Solomon’s words suggests that Thoreau and Solomon might think the same. The sameness in thought juxtaposes the two men; however, I am not seeing a metaphor with this allusion, as Bartel would suggest. But I am seeing Thoreau suggesting that his ideas are philosophically equal with Solomon’s. This positioning elevates Thoreau’s ideas, while at the same time lowering the Bible from its lofty position. Thoreau uses the Biblical allusion to suggest that the Bible no longer stands on its own, at least in Thoreau’s world, and that Thoreau’s ideas are just as lofty and the Bible’s. The Biblical allusion suggests philological authority and perhaps even psychological superiority.
Another Biblical allusion found
in Thoreau’s “Walden” Chapter 1 “Economy” on page 894, in the last
sentence of the paragraph: “I never knew, and never shall know, a worse man
than myself” (894). Paul writes something similar: “O wretched man that I
am!” (Romans 7:24a). Thoreau has just
finished discussing the hypocrisy of philanthropy and Paul has just finished
discussing the hypocrisy of following the laws, of Moses. According to Thoreau,
philanthropy only appears to help the society. Philanthropy, still
according to Thoreau, is mostly making the philanthropist feel good and not
helping society at all. And similarly yet dissimilarly, Paul is discussing the
uselessness of following the law. Following the law only appears to help
individuals. Paul is discussing Christian doctrine, whereas, Thoreau uses
Paul’s words to discuss social accountability. Thoreau manipulates the
Biblical context. Nevertheless, Thoreau is using his poetic license to make his
point. Both men argue that the philosophy that appears to be helpful is not
actually helpful at all. Biblical allusions reemphasize Thoreau’s belief that
the individual is responsible to society and not just small segments of society.
I think that these comparisons suggest that Bartel is correct when he writes
that authors use Biblical allusion to “drive home a thematic point” (14).
Additionally, I think that Thoreau’s Biblical
allusions may also be suggesting that his work and ideas are on equal status
with the Bible, effectively elevating his work and making it equal with the
Bible.
Bartel goes on to suggest that
American writers who use the Bible aesthetically use it to suggest an ironic
tone: “it magnifies the hypocrisy and self-righteousness of those who profess
to safeguard the morals of the community” (19). Hawthorne exemplifies this
idea in the Norton Anthology on page 616. “Young Goodman Brown” recognizes
the pillars of his Christian community in the satanic circle: “he recognized a
score of the church-members of Salem village, famous for their sanctity”
(616). And although Hawthorne is not using a specific Biblical passage he is
using Biblical imagery. Fire in the Bible is symbolic for holiness (burning
bush) and evil (lake of fire). The dual symbolism suggests the hypocrisy of the
Christian community in Salem. The fire sheds light on Salem community members
who are not as pure as they seem. Extending the fire metaphor further, it might
also suggest that the community is condemned to the “lake of fire.” So far,
I have examined two authors who use the Bible for aesthetic purposes. In
both cases, the authors’ Biblical allusion transcends the ordinary creating an
elevated work. With the Thoreau passages, the Biblical allusions create
transcendent philosophical ideals by suggesting a correspondence with the Bible.
In Hawthorne, the Biblical allusions create the supernatural element, therefore,
establishing a transcendent work.
*****
Reynolds, David S. Beneath The American Renaissance:
The Subversive Imagination in the Age
of Emerson and Melville. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1988.
In this text I learn even more fully why American Renaissance authors use the Bible in their texts. Reynolds’ writes: “The most important thing to recognize is that by the early 1830s religious allegory, once a quite rigid genre used for illustration of Puritan doctrine, had become a most flexible and adaptable one, fully available for purely literary manipulation” (38). Additionally, I found it particularly interesting that “between 1800 and 1860, popular sermon style, which had in Puritan times been characterized primarily by theological rigor and restraint of the imagination, came to be dominated by diverting narrative, extensive illustrations, and even colloquial humor” (15). With Reynolds’ book, it seems that I am getting even closer to understanding how and why American Renaissance authors use the Bible in their texts.
Reynolds goes on to write that
there are two main reasons why American authors develop a complexity of style:
“the new sermon style, especially evident in frontier revival preaching; and
images from popular fiction and poetry dealing with religion” (16). In
reference to the popular fiction, I am thinking that one work Reynolds might be
referring to is Pilgrim’s Progress by John
Bunyan, which was a popular Christian fiction in 18th
and 19th Centuries America. As for sermonizing, Reynolds
writes that Jonathan Edward’s essay “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry
God,” which is one of our readings in the Norton Anthology, on page 207, is
famous for its use of “powerful, horrifying illustrations” (17), which might
suggest a beginning for the use of Biblical metaphor in American literary works.
Although Edwards is a Pre-Romantic writer, his colorful sermonizing affects the
thinking of American writers who transport his entertaining style into their
work. If Reynolds is correct, European Romanticism’s
use of the Bible may not have influenced American Romanticism as much as I
initially thought—instead, the largest influence might be American preachers.
Reynolds cites several evangelists, but one evangelist in particular is
Harry Hoosier (1790s). Harry, a black evangelist and slave, traveled with
Francis Ashbury, a white evangelist, throughout the “southern frontier
retelling Bible stories” (17). Moreover,
according to Reynolds, Hoosier’s storytelling transcends Puritan dogma.
Hoosier, using “lively dialect,” frees Bible stories from Puritan rhetoric,
which, as a result, connects the common man more completely with the moral
application (17). Reynolds gives black
preachers credit for the beginnings of a “truly informal, indigenous preaching
style” (17). Reynolds suggests that Emerson took notice of this new preaching
style, and in “Emerson’s ‘Divinity School Address’ (1838) […] [he]
enacts this enthusiasm for the new secular sermon style by using imagery from
the natural world, popular literature, and his own experience, imagery that by
turns allures and repels but that always entertains” (23). Emerson’s writing
is greatly affected by the new sermonizing style, which in turn affects other
American writers (19). To extend the discussion on “imagery that […] allures
and repels,” I will examine Hawthorne’s The Minister’s Black Veil.
As Reynolds’ already suggests, the new sermon style creates a freedom to
reorder Biblical language. Hawthorne is free to create contrasting images from
familiar Biblical passages. In The Minister’s Black Veil, Hawthorne
discusses the paradoxical nature of life and he does so by incorporating
Biblical imagery. The black veil serves as a deathly metaphor reminding
Hawthorne’s readers of their transitory nature and ultimately of their final
end. But a larger metaphor is in the marriage passage found on page 630 in the
Norton Anthology. Marriage is a major theme in the Bible and a familiar theme
from which to create an effective contrast. Marriage suggests peace, unity, and
ultimately, from a Biblical point of view, a utopian society when the church
marries her bridegroom (Christ). However, in Black Veil, marriage
suggests fear, dread and the ultimate separation—death. The veil creates fear
in the bride as she looks upon Mr. Hooper’s black veil. Deathly imagery is
suggested as “the bride’s cold fingers quivered in the tremulous hand of the
bridegroom” (630). Death is even more prevalent as the narrator describes the
bride: “her death-like paleness caused a whisper” (630). The wedding imagery
contrasted with the ambiguous black veil suggests that Hawthorne is contrasting
the glorious with the inglorious. The black veil reminds the couple of their
temporal existence and final destination—hence the trembling. Even as the
couple looks forward to their new life they must also face their end. The
contrast Hawthorne creates with the Biblical allusion (marriage theme) suggests
the paradox of life: Death waits behind every new beginning and is the final
experience on this earth. Biblical allusion in The Minister’s Black Veil
emphasizes the disparity between life and death and effectively
moves the story from the ordinary into the supernatural.
*****
Reynolds, David S. Faith in
Fiction: The Emergence of Religious Literature in America.
Massachusetts:
Harvard University Press, 1981.
In another of Reynolds’ books, he discusses the oriental connection to American literature. When I first began this study and the term “oriental” was used, it confused me. I associated the word (oriental) with Asian countries. However, as I researched, I learned that scholars, in this context (Romanticism), were referring to the Near East and not the Far East. And to clarify further, Encyclopǽdia Britannica-online defines Near East:
the lands around the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea, including northeastern Africa, Southwestern Asia, and occasionally, the Balkan Peninsula. The term Near East was used by the first Western geographers to refer to the nearer part of the Orient, a region roughly coextensive with the Ottoman Empire.
{see fig. 1}
According to Reynolds, some American authors discovered a common link with their tales and tales from the Orient: “some American authors between 1785 and 1820 found in Oriental religions, […] [that] their tales were linked by a common use of correspondences between Oriental doctrine and progressive American ideas” (20). Additionally, Oriental tales are friendlier and not as wrathful as Calvinism (24). Reynolds goes on to describe how the Oriental style uses visionary methods, such as angels and allegories, which frees American authors to move from restrictive Calvinism and its suppression of the imagination towards a freer more imaginative style (16). Poe uses a lot of angel imagery in “Annabel Lee”: “With a love that the winged seraphs of heaven,” and “The angels, not half so happy in heaven,” and “And neither the angels in heaven above” lines 11, 21, and 30 respectively. The angelic imagery sets an elevated tone for Annabel Lee. However, there is more Biblical allusion in “Annabel Lee”:
And neither the angels in heaven above,
Nor the demons down under the sea,
Can ever dissever my soul from the soul
Of the beautiful ANNABEL LEE:
ll 30-33
These lines suggest an eternal
love; nothing can separate them, not even death. My researched revealed I am not
the only critic to see the Biblical allusion in “Annabel Lee.” I was
thrilled to find an article by Richard Wilbur on the DISCovering Authors
database. Wilbur, like me, feels that Poe adapts the words of St. Paul to
“Annabel Lee”: “For I am persuaded, that neither death, nor life, nor
angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor things present, nor things to come,
Nor height, nor depth, nor any other creature, shall be able to separate us from
the love of God…” (Romans 8:38-39). Wilbur writes: “Poe’s adaptation of
the passage from Romans has the inescapable effect of identifying Annabel
Lee with ‘the love of God’ […] The passage, as used by Poe, asserts that
the soul of Annabel’s lover shall never be severed from hers, or from the
divine love and beauty which her soul communicates” (pg 3 par 6). I would add
only one additional comment to Wilbur’s commentary, Annabel Lee is
metaphorically identified with the love of God, which suggests a transcendence
not only for Annabel Lee, but the metaphor also suggests that the poem is a
totally transcendent work, as well.
Conclusion:
I have certainly learned that
European influence did cross the ocean over to America and into American
Renaissance; however, its total influence is not conclusive. And I’ve learned
why American Renaissance authors use Biblical
allusion. First, they know it well. Second, the Europeans use it: American
authors imitate the techniques of their European counterparts: symbols,
allegory, oriental imagery, Psalm style, and symbolism. And third, it causes a
transcendence of their text past the common.
Bible
passages change as the European Romantics began to incorporate other oriental
literature into their work, which creates a freedom from theology. The freedom
from theology changes Biblical passages because it frees American authors to use
Bible words not as scripture , as a literary tool. When American authors include
familiar Biblical language in their own literary works, it suggests that the
author transcends all authority and theological boundaries. As a result,
Biblical authority is diminished. The bible becomes just another text. The Bible
looses its luster as its parts are fused with other myths.
So now
I wonder, since the Biblical passages change as the American Romantics use the
Bible, what gets retained? I find this question nearly impossible to answer. I
am not sure I can answer it completely, which suggests that I need to do more
research on the Bible itself. However, it seems to me that the American
Renaissance authors are true to the images and symbols of the Bible, so that
seems to be retained. Additionally, the Bible’s language is retained, but even
as I say that American authors manipulate the language. The Biblical style does
not change. Its emphasis on the struggle between good and evil does not change.
As for what is newly emphasized, Biblical allusion in American Romanticism
reemphasizes the dualism of the Biblical literature, by refocusing on the
struggle between good and evil in a different way. Additionally, Biblical
allusion emphasizes a transcendent love, which corresponds well with the
Bible’s emphasis on unconditional love, which is also transcendent. The
research feels incomplete, which suggests that there are unanswered questions.
I am
wondering if the non-Christian point of view permeates French literature.
Additionally, I would like to examine more thoroughly how the German Romantics
write because I had a source that suggested they did retain some Christian
ideology. So how much was in their work? It seems that this journal did answer
most of my initial queries; however, it created even more questions.
Expansion of the Ottoman Empire. |
|
|
Fig. 1
Encyclopǽdia Britannica: Media
http://p30643.uhcl.edu:2274/eb/art?id=678&type=A
Works Cited
Allison, John. “American Theory and Criticism –
Nineteenth Century.” The John Hopkins Guide
to Literary Theory & Criticism. Online. 13 November 2003. Path: Google search:
American Theory and Criticism Nineteenth Century.
Avani, Abraham Albert. The Bible and Romanticism. Paris: Mouton, 1969.
Bevan, David Ed, Literature and the Bible: Rodopi Perspectives on Modern Literature.
Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 1993.
Bartel, Roland, James S. Ackerman & Thayer S. Warshaw. Biblical Images in Literature.
Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1975.
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http://www.nd.edu/~rbarger/www7/
Hawthorne,
Nathaniel. “Young Goodman Brown.” The Norton Anthology of American
Literature. 6th ed. Ed. Nina Baym. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2003.
--------“The
Minister’s Black Veil.” The Norton Anthology of American
Literature. 6th ed. Ed. Nina Baym. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2003.
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P999(2) Gale, 2003. Farmington Hills,Mich.: Gale Group. October 2001. 19 November
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