Vickie Baillio
LITR 4333
Dr. Craig White
April 19, 2000

Journal Project for

American Immigrant Literature

Table of Contents

Author Biography of Anzia Yezierska: Jewish Immigrant

Primary Bibliography

Media Adaptations of Yezierska’s Works

Secondary Bibliography

Secondary Sources: Articles and Book Reviews

Review of History of Korean Immigration

Review of History of Asian Literature

Bibliography of Asian American Children’s Literature

Interview with Brazilian Immigrant Lenine Sanchez

Anzia Yezierska was born in approximately 1885 in the village of Plinsk, near Warsaw in Russian Poland, to impoverished Jewish parents living in a mud hut. Being that there were no official records of her birth, Yezierska simply chose to her own birth date of October 19, 1883. However, many historians and biographers concur that 1885 is the most probably year of her birth.

In approximately 1900, Yezierska, her parents, and several brothers and sisters immigrated to the United States, settling in a predominately Jewish community on the lower east side of New York. Lacking the financial support previously supplied by their fellow villagers in their homeland, everyone in Yezierska’s family was forced to work at menial jobs in order to survive. Everyone, that is, with the exception of her father, a Talmudic scholar, who insisted on continuing his full time studies of the sacred books and authoritative laws of the Jewish faith.

Although her family deemed education as unnecessary for females, Yezierska, nevertheless, decided that a formal education was her best hope for a brighter future of independence and prosperity. Having learned to read and write from a fellow janitor’s daughter, Yezierska went on to attend night school and Columbia University’s Teacher College where she earned a degree in domestic science.

After teaching for a short while, Yezierska grew dissatisfied with the profession and decided to try her hand at writing. In 1915, she made her literary debut in writing about what she knew to be true in her own life; Frustration with traditional Jewish female roles, poverty, and discrimination were just a few of the things she had endured and sought to overcome. Her first work, "Free Vacation House", detailed the humiliating treatment of impoverished immigrant wives and mother. Later, Hollywood producer Samuel Goldwyn took Yezierska to Hollywood and made a silent film based on a collection of her short works entitled "Hungry Hearts." However, Yezierska soon realized that without the backdrop of the New York ghetto life in which she had grown up, she lacked inspiration and the ability to write. Moving back to New York’s Lower East Side where she felt more at home, she resumed her writings. In 1923, she published a second collection of stories, Children of Loneliness, and her first novel, Salome of the Tenements.

Although Yezierska’s enjoyed some success with her writing profession, in her personal life she was not as fortunate. In 1910, she married a prominent New York attorney, but had the marriage annulled six months later. She later married again in 1911, this time to Arnold Levitas, with whom in 1912 she had her only child named Louise. Even in marriage, Yezierska resisted the traditional roles and obligations bestowed upon wives by a male dominated society. Subsequently, she separated from her husband. Unable to support herself and her daughter, and possibly also in order to devote more time to her writing, she sent her daughter to live with Levitas. Yezierska later went on to meet John Dewey with whom she had a romantic but not permanent relationship. Although she eventually lost much of her vision, she continued writing until her death in 1970. Yezierska’s work is particularly interesting for its presentation of immigrant women’s pursuit of the American Dream and the positive and negative aspects of immigrant acculturation and assimilation of the New World.

Hungry Hearts (a collection of short stories containing: "The Fat of the Land," "Wings," "Hunger," "Where Lovers Dream," "Soap and Water," "The Lost Beautifulness," "My Own People," "The Free Vacation House," and "How I Found America"), Boston & New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1920, reprinted, Arno Press, 1975 .

Salome of the Tenements (novel), New York: Boni & Liveright, c.1923, reprinted, introduction by Gay Wilentz, University of Illinois Press, 1995.

Children of Loneliness (short stories), New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1923; London:

Cassell, 1923.

Bread Givers: A Struggle Between A Father of the Old World and a Daughter of the New (Novel), New York: Doubleday, 1925, reprinted Braziller, 1975.

Arrogant Beggar (novel), New York: Doubleday, 1927, reprinted, Duke University Press, 1996.

All I Could Never Be (novel), New York: Brewer, Warren & Putnam, 1932

Red Ribbon on a White Horse (autobiographical novel), introduction by W. H. Auden, New York: Scribners, 1950, reprinted, Persea Books, 1981.

The Open Cage: An Anzia Yezierska Collection, edited with an introduction by Harris, afterword by Louise Levitas Henriksen, New York: Persea Books, 1979.

Hungry Hearts and Other Stories (contains Hungry Hearts, "This is What $10,000 Did to Me," "Wild Winter Love," and "One Thousand Pages of Research"), preface by Henriksen, New York: Persea Books, 1985.

How I Found America: Collected Stories of Anzia Yezierske (also includes Hungry Hearts and Children of Loneliness), New York: Persea Books, 1991.

Media Adaptations of Anzia Yezierska’s Works

Julien Josephson adapted Hungry Hearts for a silent film of the same title. The film was released in 1922 through Goldwn Studios. Another novel written by Yezierska was also adapted for the big screen; Directed by Sidney Olcott, "Salome of the Tenements" was released in 1925.

Contemporary Literary Criticism v46. Gale, 1988.

Cronin, Carol B. Anzia Yezierska. Boston: G. K. Hall, 1982.

Dearborn, Mary V. Love in the Promised Land: The Story of Anzia Yezierska and John

Dewey. New York: Free Press, 1988.

Dictionary of Literary Biography, v28: "Twentieth Century American Jewish

Fiction Writers." Gale, 1984.

Ebest, Ron. "Anzia Yezierska and the Popular Periodical Debate Over the Jews."Society for the Multi-Ethnics Literature of the United States (MELUS). 22 Mar.

2000. <http://www.findarticles.com/cf_0/m2278/1_25/63323838/print.jhtml>

Ferraro, Thomas. "Working Ourselves Up in America: Anzia Yezierska’s Bread Givers".

South Atlantic Quarterly v89, no. 3 (1990): 547-581.

Harris, Alice Kessler. Introduction to Bread Givers. New York: Braziller, 1975.

Henriksen, Louise Levitas. Aniza Yezierska: A Writer’s Life. New Brunswick: Rutgers

University Press, 1988.

Neidle, Cecyle S. America’s Immigrant Women. Hippocrene, 1976.

Okonkwo, Christopher N. "Of Repression, Assertion, and the Speakerly Dress: Anzia

Yezierska’s Salome of the Tenements." Society for the Multi-Ethnics Literature of

<http://www.findarticles.com/cf_0/m2278/1_25/63323839/print.jhtml>

Rosen, Norma. John and Anzia. An American Romance. Dutton, 1989.

Salvatori, Mariolina. "Women’s Work in the Novels of Immigrant Life." Melus 9:4

(1982): 39-58.

Shapiro, Ann. R. Jewish American Women Writers: A Bio-bibliographical and Critical

Sourcebook. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1994.

Schoen, Carol B. Anzia Yezierska. Boston: G. K. Hall, 1982.

---. "Anzia Yezierska: New Light on the Sweatshop Cinderella." Melus 7:3

(1980): 3-11.

Wilentz, Gay. "Cultural Mediation and the Immigrant’s Daughter: Anzia Yezierska’s

Bread Givers." Melus 17:3 (1991-1992): 33-41

Chen, Jack. The Chinese of America. New York: Harper & Row, 1980.

In The Chinese of America Jack Chen, through careful documentation, traces the history of the earliest Chinese immigrants who joined the California gold rush in the middle of the 19^th century to the more affluent population today that have become a part of main stream middle-class America. Through this tracing of history, the reader is able to get a clear picture of many of the origins of the cultural values that the Chinese brought with them to their new life in America. Prior to World War I, Chinese-Americans originated mainly from one concentrated area, the province of Guangdong. Coming from such small concentrations allowed for more cohesion in the Chinese-American’s dialect, culture, and family network system. This cohesion also aided in rejecting or warding off the influences of the dominant society.

Chen’s detailed description of the earliest Chinese immigrants’ journey to American paints a vivid picture in the reader’s mind of the hardships they endured while coming to the New World. Also apparent through the reading of the text is the importance of the "institutional networks" that helped sustain the new immigrants as they landed in America. In addition to the networks that the Chinese-Americans surrounded themselves with, the immigrants also chose to self-govern their communities as much as possible by settling arguments and other disputes within the realm of their own community, thereby, avoiding outside society or the legal system.

Many of the early Chinese immigrants did not plan to live permanently in the United States. Instead, their aim was to work and live in America just long enough to gain the necessary funds that would allow them to return to their homeland prosperous and wealthy. Most 19^th century Chinese immigrants labored in mines and on the railroads, sometimes working at the very jobs that white workers refused due to harsh and dangerous work conditions.

Chen elaborates in his accounts of the discrimination and hatred that the Chinese immigrants experienced at the hands of the dominant society. Many immigrants were killed by angry mobs of people and labor unions that were determined to keep the immigrants oppressed. The worst slap in the face for the Chinese immigrants was the exclusionary law passed in 1882 that further slowed the migration of the Chinese. However, immigration restrictions were later eased allowing the Chinese to again journey to America in the hopes of acquiring a better way of life.

The author concludes that political activism and government intervention on behalf of the new Chinese immigrants will benefit them the most and allow them to live as equals in society.

After reading this book, I came away with a new knowledge of the history of Chinese immigrants. Chen’s work reads almost like a narrative in that it provides detailed accounts into the lives of many immigrants, while at the same time avoiding jargon that would dissuade me from reading cover to cover. Additionally, this text would greatly benefit a future teacher of history or the immigrant experience.

Sachs, Susan. "A Hue, and a Cry, in the Heartland." The New York Times on the Web

the impact that immigrants, especially those without proper documentation, have on today’s society in the United States. Issues such as whether to provide public services and bilingual education for children born in the U.S to illegal immigrants are causing many debates, both in the political and private sectors.

No longer limited to mostly the metropolitan and highly populated states, these issues now affect communities across the American heartland. The question of how best to deal with diversity and integration into the American mainstream is currently a hop topic in the news. In Sach’s opinion, a "nativist backlash" against immigrants and their families may be just around the corner. She believes "crowding in schools, burdening hospitals, and depressing wages" are factors that may well lead to a possible anti-immigrant public at large.

Sachs identifies Proposition 187, which, among other things, prohibited the children of illegal immigrants from receiving public services, as proof of an increasingly intolerant government and society. However, the author believes that those who promote intolerance may also suffer the ramifications of those actions. Sachs cites the case of California Governor Pete Wilson as an example of one who suffered from his decision to support Proposition 187; The Latinos that had previously been supportive of him while in office ultimately mobilized against him and other Republicans who also supported the proposition.

Sachs concludes that punishing immigrants and their children as a means of lessening the financial burden on the rest of society does not bring about any "clear cut results" (2).

After reading Sachs’ article, I am not sure I agree with everything she writes. While I do believe that the increasing new immigrant population brings with them issues that are not quickly resolved, I do not, however, agree that the vast majority of government officials are in opposition to legal immigration. Still, Sachs does provide new food for thought with her suggestions that a predominately nativist way of thinking may soon welcome the masses of immigrants.

Small, Cathy A. Voyages: From Tongan Villages to American Suburbs. New York:

Cornell University Press, 1997.

In Voyages: From Tongan Villages to American Suburbs Cathy Small writes of the mass migration of the people of Tonga, an independent island nation in the South Pacific, to the United States. Since the mid-1960’s Tonga has lost roughly over one-third of its population to migration. Small discusses the factors that contributed to the initial migration as well as the consequences of those who left and those who remained behind.

Although Small’s book includes interviews and discussions with many different people, the majority of her focus is concentrated on one specific family who settled in California from the 1960s to the 1990s, thereby becoming part of America’s new immigrant wave.

rate of European immigrants, the population of Tongan Americans has steadily increased since the first arrivals. Maintaining close family ties is detrimental to the prosperity and survival of the Tongans who remain home. Not only must new Tongan Americans find ways to support themselves and their families in the U. S., but they are also responsible for providing financial and material support for their relatives back in Tonga. Small’s interviews capture the feelings of resentment and frustration that sometimes accompany the new immigrants in dealing with these traditional family obligations.

Through her conversations with the Tongan Americans, Small gains insight into the purposes of their migration. Most Tongans leave their home for the same reasons as do many other immigrants; they see America as the land of opportunity. However, upon their arrival to the U. S., most Tongans are greeted with a rude awakening. The new lives they seek are not always readily available. Many Tongans are forced to take jobs for which they are over qualified but underpaid. According to Small, employment experiences such as the aforementioned are common for new immigrants. Although Tongans earn far more than the could in Tonga, the fact remains that "sixty percent of Tongans in this country are within 200 percent of the poverty level, and more than twenty percent live below the poverty line, most without any public assistance" (Small 191). In light of these statistics, Small concludes by proposing the thought provoking question, "What does it say about America that a literate, healthy, hardworking population who came voluntarily to this country can end up with a median household income under $15,000, and with sixty percent of their families on the brink of poverty?" (191).

Embedded within the text of Voyages are the authentic experiences of Tongan immigrants. However, through the readings, I gained much more than simple insight into the lives and experiences of generic Tongans; I came away a new understanding and appreciation for those who desire a better way of life. I was also able to see similarities in the difficulties faced by the Tongan Americans and those of the characters in the novels, essays, and poems that I have read about in this course. Small’s book is a valuable resource for students studying immigrant history as well as for those who teach it.

Talyor, Sheryl. "Multicultural Is Who We Are". Teaching Exceptional Children

32:3, 24-29.

In this article, Taylor addressed the topic of immigrant and multicultural literature and states her case for the importance of presenting it in the classroom. Although her article is geared specifically towards educators, Taylor’s usage of layman terms and non-esoteric vocabulary allows parents and other non-professionals to benefit from the information as well.

Taylor gets immediately to the point of her article by stating up front exactly what questions and concerns she intends to explore as well as providing an easily understood definition of immigrant/multicultural children’s literature. Overall, she seems to be addressing the question of why multicultural children’s literature should be included in the classroom curriculum. Since Taylor is an Assistant Professor of Language, Literacy, and Culture at the University of Colorado, she is quite interested and well qualified to write on the subject.

According to Taylor, "All our students need to have the opportunity to understand the pluralism of today’s world and to respect the diversity of our society so that they see it in a positive light" (25). In her opinion, teachers have a great responsibility to ensure that students arrive at this inclusive understanding and respect of others. Taylor feels the way to accomplish it is through exposing students to literature that includes multicultural and immigrant origins. When students are not encouraged to explore the ways and opinions of others, they may tend to "view themselves and their lives as the ‘norm’, and see those that are different as being negative or inferior. Taylor maintains that "by exposing students to carefully selected literature. . .[they are] give[n] the chance for a ‘bird’s eye view’ into the lives, behavior, challenges, values, and customs of people who are different from themselves" (25).

Taylor also argues that "when students are excluded from or are devalued in the books made available at school. . .they learn that the teacher, school, and society [does] not value them or their experiences" (24). When students do see themselves represented in the books and curriculum they are exposed to, they tend to feel more valued and affirmed. This representation also aids in fostering an appreciation and value for others as well.

In addition to presenting the benefits of incorporating immigrant/multicultural literature in the classroom, Taylor contributes other useful and interesting information in her article. For instance, Taylor stresses that the texts should strive to "address contemporary realities, issues, and characters" in which students can relate (26). Most importantly, Taylor concludes that the books should "accurately reflect the lives and cultures of [the] students" (26) and avoid stereotypes.

Taylor’s article is written in such a way that an educator or other interested individual can decipher her information and apply it to the classroom or any place than people and literature come together. As a future educator, I appreciated Taylor’s article and found it both thought provoking and useful.

Korean immigration to the United States can be roughly divided into three phases: 1) the early immigration of predominately males who supplied the Hawaiian Islands with cheap laborers (1903-1905), 2) the post-Korean war immigration (1951-1964) of young Korean women married to American servicemen and many Korean war orphans adopted by American families, and 3) the large wave of Korean family immigration since 1965.

By 1881, a small number of ginseng merchants, political exiles, Korean students, and migrant workers began to arrive in America, but the total number of Koreans in the U. S. before the 20^th century was estimated at fewer than fifty. The first wave of Korean immigrants (1903-1905) was in responses to the labor shortage in Hawaii brought about by the passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act. However, as an indirect result of the Gentlemen’s Act of 1908, the large flow of migration came to a halt, except for the approximately 1100 brides who were allowed to join their prospective husbands between 1910 and 1924.

The second wave of Koreans arrived between the Korean War of 1950-53 and 1965. Most of them were war orphans, or wives and relatives of American servicemen who had been stationed in Korea.

The passage of the Immigration Act of 1965 supplied the backdrop for another mass wave of Korean migration, as it succeeded in abolishing discriminatory immigration quotas based on national origin. Immediate relatives of American citizens were not subject to the quotas set by the Act and were free to travel to the U. S.

By the 1970s and 1980s, Koreans made up the third largest immigrant group, following Mexicans and Filipinos. Economic, political, and military connections between Korea and the U. S. all contributed to South Korea having sent more immigrants to the U. S. than any other Asian countries during this period. Since 1988, Korean migration has gradually fallen. Researchers attribute this decrease to the improved economic, social, and political conditions in South Korea. The largest Korean center in the U. S. is located in Southern California with the second largest in the New York-New Jersey area.

Coppa, Frank J and Thomas J. Curran, eds. The Immigrant Experience in America.

Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1976.

Portes, Alejandro, ed. The New Second Generation. New York: Russell Sage

Foundation, 1996.

As the Asian population of the United States continues to increase, so does the demand for quality Asian American literature. Despite the fact that Asians have long been in America, the history of Asian American literature is relatively short. In addition, the genre of Asian American literature has a disproportionately small number of books as compared to the large number of Asians living in the U. S.

The history of Asian American literature began around the 1940’s or slightly before. Many Japanese Americans wrote about their experiences while living in the interment camps located in the U. S. The first Chinese author to enjoy financial success was C. Y. Lee. His book, The Flower Drum, was later adapted for the stage by Rogers and Hammerstein. During the 1960s to mid 1970s, published writings often showcased Asian Americans as people with "fu manchu mustaches, short straight cereal-bowl haircuts, buck teeth, myopic vision, and clothing what was cruelly and offensively indicative of ancient ways" (McCaskill 230). Fortunately, by the end of the 1980s, writings pertaining to Asian Americans began to portray them in more realistic and accurate roles.

In the genre of Children’s Literature, there are a growing number of books that reflect the Asian American experience. One example in this category is Gloria Whelan’s Goodbye, Vietnam which details the experiences of refugees from Vietnam and of their journey to America. Whelan’s work succeeds in accurately reflecting the experiences of Asians who escaped from war-torn countries and immigrated to the United States. Laurence Yep is another noted author who stories depict his struggles of finding the balance between maintaining a strong Chinese heritage and becoming part of the mainstream American culture.

Although the collection of Asian American writings includes historical fiction and folktales, there continues to be a need for additional books depicting Asian American protagonists in contemporary settings. Educators have the opportunity to enrich the lives of their students through their choices of literature presented in their classroom. By reading and becoming familiar with Asian American literature and other works outside the realm of the mainstream society, teachers can promote awareness and appreciation for all cultures and ethnic groups.

McCaskill, Barbara & Suzanne M. Miller, eds. Multicultural Literature & Literacies:

Ai-Ling, Louie. Yeh-Shen. New York: Philomel, 1982.

Brown, Tricia. Chinese New Year. New York: Holt, 1987.

Choi, Sook Nyul. Year of Impossible Good-byes. Boston: Houghton, 1991.

Coutant, Helen. First Snow. New York:Knopf, 1974.

Demi. Chingis Kahn. New York: Holt, 1991.

Fritz, Jean. Homesick. New York: Putnam, 1982.

---. China’s Long March: 6,000 miles of Danger. New York: Putnam, 1988.

Ho, Minfong. The Clay Marble. New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1991.

Hoyt-Goldsmith, Diana. Hoang Anh: A Vietnamese-American Boy. New York:

Holiday House, 1992.

Lord, Bette. In the Year of the Boar and Jackie Robinson. New York: Harper & Row,

1984.

Maruki, Toshi. Hiroshima no Pika. New York: Lothrop, Lee & Shepard, 1980.

Morey, Janet & Wendy Dunn. Famous Asian Americans. New York: Cobblehill

Books/Dutton, 1992.

Uchida, Yoshiko. Journey Home. New York: Atheneum, 1978.

Whelan, Gloria. Goodbye, Vietnam. New York: Knopf, 1992.

Yep, Laurence. Child of the Owl. New York: Harper & Row, 1977.

---. The Lost Garden. New Jersey: Julian Messner, 1991.

Zhensun, Zheng & Alice Low. A Young Painter. New York: Scholastic, 1991.

What is your name? My formal name is Lenine Sanchez, but my friends call me Leno.

What is your country of origin? Brazil

What year did you immigrate to the U. S. and how old were you at the time? I came in 1998 when I was fourteen years old.

Did you come here alone or with others? In Brazil, I meet a group of people on a mission trip from Texas. They ask me if I like to come to the U. S. and go to American schools. I say yes, when can we go?

Why did you immigrate to the U. S.? In Brazil I am an orphan and live on the streets. Sometimes I stay at the mission houses but they are mostly full of others like me. I think I have better education in school and get to play more soccer in the states.

What expectations did you have regarding the U. S. before you arrived? Were you surprised at the things you saw when you landed in America? I was scared to get on the big plane but then they told me we get to eat lots of food on the plan. When I get off the plane in Houston I look for all the horses and cows and cowboys. At first, I only see lots of cars and many people. At first I think I am still in Brazil. Finally, I get to see horses and cows but no cowboys.

What problems have you encountered in attempting to assimilate into American society? At first, I have trouble talking to people except for ones who speak Spanish or Portuguese. At first, when I talk many people laugh. I not understand but just laugh anyway. I think they are funny too.

Do you plan to continue living in the U. S. or return permanently to Brazil? One day I will go back to Brazil when I am older and with a good education.

To what extent do you want your children to blend into the culture of the U. S.? I want them to be like American but still know the Brazilian culture and way of life.

What advice would you give others who are considering coming to the U. S.? I would tell them don’t be afraid to fly on a plane. I would tell them people in America are not all bad. They are just like you and me in some ways.

What books or other literature have you read that reflected the immigrant experience? I like to read a lot. The family I stay with buys me books in Spanish and some books in English. I like to read about sports. Sometimes I read about people who leave their home and fly long way from home like me. They want to go to America so they can have a better life.

Do you feel split between two cultures or do you consider yourself just an American? I feel like I am American because I have been here for a long time. My family that I live with says I am part of their family. They are American and now I am too. But sometimes I think about Brazil and wish I could see my old friends again. I think I will someday, but probably not for a long time.

I first met Leno Sanchez in 1988 when he moved here from Brazil. Although he stated that he is an orphan, he is not being altogether truthful. Leno’s father is alive but imprisoned in Brazil for killing Leon’s mother. After his father went to prison, Leno lived on the streets of Brazil until he came here to the U. S. His host parents welcomed him into their homes and lives as if he were one of their own four sons. Although his past situation was miserable, Leno now seems to be quite content for the most part. Each time I see him, he has a smile on his face.