Ava Zinn

Journal Project

Seminar in American Culture

Dr. Craig White

27 July 1999

Table of Contents

Part 1: Author Biography

Julia Alvarez: An Immigrant's Story ............

Primary Bibliography ................................

Secondary Bibliography ..................................

Part 2: Article Reviews

1 . "Young Immigrants Find a Hard New Land"........

2. "A Mexican Town that Transcends all Borders"...

3. "Revising the American Literary Canon: The

4. "Generational Status and Personality Factors

6. "On Not Listening in Order to Hear: Collaborafive

7. "A Brief Statement of Some Needs of Nontraditional

Part 3: Immigration History and Literature

History of Mexican-American Immigration

Mexican-American Immigrant Literature

Part 4: Interview with Immigrants

Questions and responses of three immigrants

Follow-up observations 29-31

Although Julia Alvarez was born in New York, her family moved to the Dominican Republic soon after her birth. The first ten years of her life were nestled in Caribbean culture where she enjoyed the oral tradition of storytelling; it was not until she was ten and moved back to the United States that she discovered her love for the written word. Alvarez was outspoken and assertive in

her beliefs, even at an early age. These traits could easily be traced back to her father, who was vocal in the politics of the Dominican Republic. When she was ten, her father was exposed for his involvement in an attempt to overthrow the dictator. Rafael Trujillo, forcing her family to flee their homeland.

Her immigration back to the United States was not a smooth transition. Alvarez found the North American culture to be cold and forbidding. Her first impression was of a society that was inundated with flower children, protests, and drugs, representing causes she did not understand or relate to. She was described, for the first time in her life, as being quiet and withdrawn. In the Dominican Republic Latino culture, everyone had been a "bead on a string," experiencing a sense of connectedness. Seeing oneself as an individual was a concept she had yet to learn in the United States. She longed for the only homeland she had ever known where she had fit-in with ease. Although she later discovered when she returned briefly, she no longer belonged to that culture either. Alvarez's parents pushed her to assimilate: to learn English and to "become one of them." Although having a foot in both cultures was a burden in the beginning, Alvarez now sees the value of using her writing to bridge that gap.

Alvarez received her early American education at boarding schools. Through books she read there she discovered she could maintain some ties to the familiar, and her beloved homeland then became portable. Alvarez admits she came to the English language late, but she is quick to point out that she came to her profession early. By the time she was in high school, she knew she wanted to be a writer. After high school, Alvarez attended Middlebury College where she received a Bachelor of Arts degree and graduated summa cum laude. She furthered her education at Syracuse University, where she received a Masters of Fine Arts) and later studied at the Bread Loaf School of English.

As she read more and more literature through her college years, she could not help but note that she had few female Latino role-models, either as authors or as characters in the literature. Because of this realization, perhaps, she became interested in the experiences of women of color. Alvarez is quick to credit Chekov with her thoughts about writing--"a writer isn't there to solve the problem, but to state the problem correctly." Her novels, as well as her poetry, seem to be an attempt to state the problems of Latino women, often sisters. In an attempt to clarify these issues, Julia Alvarez realizes she has broken the Latino culture's rules that define what a woman's role should or should not include. However, she was not pleased at being pegged as someone who limits her focus to women. She has now challenged herself to write from the male viewpoint. Attempts at this new perspective are still works in progress. Julia Alvarez says she writes in order to find out what she is thinking and to strive for a truth of the heart, not to deliver an ethnic message. She not only has a need to understand herself and her truth but also feels an obligation to assist her readers in understanding themselves.

Realizing that her books are often included in college curricula, Alvarez expresses a concern for the natural tendency for students to generalize, thinking that a particular book being studied represents how all Latinos think or act. She also emphasizes the completely different experiences for Chicanos who have not immigrated. There is a danger, she fears, in lumping all Spanish-speaking cultures together and in making the attempt to draw broad conclusions from a small sample of literature.

When giving the keynote address at Appalachian State University's convocation, Julia Alvarez focused on the importance of "becoming a butterfly." She reminded students that they must risk failure and hard work in order to fly and emphasized that they should always remember where they are going. To support this point, Alvarez explained that her first novel was published after twenty years of writing, reminding the graduates that, "Wingstroke by wingstroke, word by word, we achieve our goals."

The butterfly metaphor is an appropriate one to apply to the life of Julia Alvarez. Her novel, In the Time of the Butterfles, points out that the butterfly is a Greek mythological symbol for the soul. Just as the butterfly metamorphoses, we also develop a soul. The self-imposed cocoon Alvarez spun immediately after immigrating allowed her the time and space to develop into a highly respected writer who speaks directly to the soul of her readers.

NOVELS

How the Garcia Girls Lost Their Accents. Chapel Hill: Algonquin Books, 1991.

In the Time of the Butterflies. Chapel Hill: Algonquin Books, 1994.

Yo! Chapel Hill: Algonquin Books, 1996.

POETRY

(Editor) Old Age Ain't for Sissies (poetry), Crane Creek Press, 1979.

The Housekeepinq Book, illustrations by Carol MacDonald and Rene Schall,

Burlington, VT, 1984.

Homecoming. New York: Grove Press, 1984, revised edition, New York: Dutton,

1995.

The Other Side/ El Otro Lado, New York: Dutton, 1995.

Atanasoski, Neda. "Julia Alvarez." Voices From the Gaps: Women Writers of

Color. Online. Internet. 15 April 1998. Available:

Jones, Daniel and John Jorgenson. Contemporary Authors. Detroit: Gale

Publishers, 1999

"On Tour: Julia Alvarez." Hungry Mind Review. Online. Internet.

Requa, Marny. "The Politics of Fiction." 4 pages. Online. Internet.

Ward, Katie. "Alvarez Encourages Student Body to Soar." The Appalachian

Walker, Susan. "Julia Alvrez" shwalke@emory.edu Fall 1997.

Article #1

Sengupta, Somini. "Young Immigrants Find a Hard New Land." New York

In her New York Times article, Somini Sengupta asserts that immigrants to the United States are younger than before, and they are discovering it more difficult to succeed. The author uses examples of young teenage boys from various countries including Mexico, India, Africa, and China to show evidence of the various work situations which fall considerably short of the American Dream. Reasons for their immigration include everything from getting a better education to religious persecution. Interviews with these young immigrants reveal that they come both with and without parental consent, often hoping they can make money to send back to their families. Factual data from the Immigration and Naturalization Service lend support to the contention that the number of teen immigrants is increasing at alarming rates. Statements from doctors and English teachers are also used to reinforce this idea of rapid growth. An anthropologist who studies historical data of immigrants supports the author's point that immigration for these young children is not what is was in past generations. She reveals her grandfather's success story when he immigrated from Russia. However, she is quick to point out that it is much.harder for immigrants today to do what her grandfather did because of difficulty attaining legal residence and inability to pay for the higher education necessary to move ahead today.

The article is not focused on a solution for this situation but rather to make readers aware of the changing face on immigration; it achieves this purpose. The authors argument is well-supported, credible, and coherent. It did leave me wondering why the laws for becoming a citizen are more stringent now than they were for past generations. (Thanks for the explanation; that makes sense.)

Article #2

Sontag, Deborah. "A Mexican Town that Transcends all Borders." New York

Times. 21 July 1998. Al, A10.

In her article "A Mexican Town that Transcends all Borders" Deborah Sontag does not launch the traditional argument followed by a variety of supporting evidence from numerous sources. Instead she uses one extended example to explain to her readers how the immigrant narrative is changing. She uses the small Mexico town of Chinantla as an example of how many families are now living and working in New York, while maintaining another home in Mexico. This unusual narrative had its beginning when Pedro Simon and his brother, unable to get work picking fruit in Texas, caught a ride with a tourist who drove them straight to Times Square. According to Sontag, "in New York City, first generation Chinantecan immigrants are waiters and garment workers and bus mechanics," but are able to return to Mexico and live in relative luxury complete with nice homes and servants. This concept caught on and became even more desirable when Mexican law changed and allowed immigrants to keep their Mexican nationality as American citizens. In addition, this law allows the same for their American-born children. With relatively inexpensive plane fare and international phone cards, immigration now allows for keeping a foothold in two countries. Second and third generation New Yorkers are attending college and maintaining jobs higher on the economic ladder. Sontag gives the example of Melissa Cruz, who works as a nurse and is considering medical school. It is equally important, however, for these later generations to retain their ties to their Mexican heritage. The families look forward to returning to Chinantala, Mexico where they enjoy winter fiestas and summer vacations. They live there in comfort and receive respect from other villagers, many of whom lead the same double lifestyle.

Sontag's article is particularly useful in that it gives us a glimpse of what may be the future of immigration. If this dual residence works so well all the way from New York to Mexico, it is logical that Texas and California will probably experience large numbers of families who want to follow this example. I cannot help but think this is already happening, but, if so, it was not clear from the article.

Article #3

Skardal, Dorothy Burton. "Revising the American Literary Canon: The Case of

In her article, Dorothy Skardal asserts that she supports the current movement to revise the literary canon to include immigrant literature. Immigrants for years have suffered both psychological and sociological problems in an effort to adjust to life in America. After examining a historical view of early writings by immigrants, the author theorizes that these early writers wrote as a means of catharsis to aid in their own acculturation, and their readers devoured the stories because it helped to meet some of their psychological and social needs. Skardal points out that major writers in the canon dealt very little with immigration stories because "they were native-born, they had no idea what immigrant experience was-like." - In 1973, the organization named Multi-Ethnic Literature in the United States (MELUS) was established through an affiliation with MLA. This organization often conducts special sessions at MLA conferences and publishes a quarterly journal for their member. In addition, they act as advocates for the inclusion of immigrant/ethnic literature as the opportunity arises. The movement now underway proposes that we should reclaim, translate, and republish some of the older immigrant writing.

The criteria for selecting literature is an issue of concern for Skardal. In the past, many of the pieces have been considered weak at the artistic level. The author believes strongly that the "artistic ability of immigrant authors should be measured between and within immigrant groups against other immigrant authors, not against the greats in the canon of any national literature." She explains five criteria she uses to judge Scandinavian authors in her studies, and implies that they could be used for all immigrant authors. They include:

• seriousness of intent

• number of works published (and where)

• evaluation by contemporaries

• extent and reliability of their insight into the life of their group

• artistic ability

Skardal desires that immigrant literature be read more for content than for artistic flaws. She ends her article by explaining the practical value of this inclusion both in America and Europe as well.

The author covered a rather broad spectrum when trying to explain this concept. Many of the details of her Scandinavian experience hardly seemed relevant and consumed a large portion of the article. I did learn a little more about the literary canon and the changes that are being proposed, as well as an appreciation of the immigrants' need to read and identify with others who have struggled with their same assimilation issues.

 Article #4

As an instructor of increasing numbers of immigrant students, this article is particularly useful to me. I have, perhaps, had the tendency in the past to lump all foreign students into one category. After reading this article, I am inclined to ask students a question regarding immigration and generational status to be answered on their introductory essay.

Article #5

Mettler, Sally. "Acculturation, Cummunication Apprehension, and Language Acquisition." Community Review. 1 (1987): 5-15.

Author Sally Mettler asserts that instructors can be more receptive and productive once they become more aware of the unique needs of immigrant 7 ESL students. She contends that the difficulty in the process is doubled for many students because they must strive for language acquisition and assimilation at the same time. Several barriers these students must negotiate form an outline for her article.

First, the language barrier is made more laborious to cross because students must not simply learn English, but rather Standard English, which is the norm of the classroom. However, Standard English is not always used in the conversation heard by these students. Various regional dialects certainly complicate this acquisition even further. Many teachers fail to realize that immigrant students are often moving from an oral culture to a print culture, thereby placing a greater emphasis on the written word than has been their custom. All of these "rules", of course, are usually implied in our culture and are rarely communicated directly to the immigrant student.

Next, Mettler focuses on the behavior barriers as they relate to the assimilation process. Included in this obstacle are all nonverbal codes of the host country, many of which we ourselves are unaware. These include facial expressions, gestures, eye contact (or its absence), interactions with others as well as appropriate use of personal space.

Finally, the author acknowledges what she has named the affiliation barrier. This final category examines the immigrant's ethnic group and how it relates to their assimilation into the North American culture. She claims these relations can fall into one of three categories: collaboration, coexistence, or conflict. These relationships wouid naturally affect the ease with which immigrant students are able to assimilate.

Because students are often unsure of how to say what they want to say and because they have difficulty trying to balance translation and understanding when they are the listener, ESL students often develop what the author calls communication apprehension. Instead of experimenting with their new language, they withdraw and often avoid communication efforts with those in the host culture when possible.

Before closing the article, the author finally makes some suggestions for the classroom instructor. She advised teachers to:

Mettier's article had much to offer the classroom instructor; however, I feel many readers would have given up before they gleaned the messages she intended to communicate. Although her points lent themselves to clear organization, she jumped back and forth from one to another then back again. In addition, the vocabulary and confusing sentence structure perhaps posed even greater obstacles to communication. I thought it ironic that someone who was writing about communication wrote in such a way that a college educated reader with considerable background knowledge of the subject had to struggle with a dictionary to make meaning from her article. (I agree; I, too, felt she was writing to impress rather than inform and that's a shame because this article probably had the most to offer the classroom instructor. Hope I got close to the message she was trying to convey.)

Article #6

Bruffee, Kenneth. "On Not Listening in Order to Hear: Collaborative Learning And the Rewards of Classroom Research." Journal of Basic Writing, 7 (1988): 3-12.

In his article, Kenneth Bruffee asserts that community college instructors of the humanities have the opportunity to foster change in their students through classroom activities and research. Bruffee and several associates met together to examine the issue of teaching basic writing to open admissions students. After much discussion within their group, they noted the similarity of the group of educators to their group of students. The students, both immigrants and nonimmigrant, were already acculturated into their own various communities where their current mode of writing and speaking were perfectly acceptable. Educators had to decide how to re-acculturate these students into the academic community.

According to Bruffee, the group began to voice the idea that "perhaps our job as teachers was not ... to correct them." Writing teachers have far too long relied on their ability to correct papers as the principal means to teach writing classes. Bruffee's group decided that because many of their students fit the label "oppressed" (since for the most part they had received limited preparation in blending with society), a pedagogy of re-acculturation was needed.

The group's pedagogy calls for instructors to provide safe opportunities for focused conversation with other students. Instructors are also encouraged to guide students in using these working groups as support groups to facilitate the ease with which all students make the transition into the American academic environment. Bruffee encourages readers to use these collaborative activities to set up controlled classroom- research studies. He then provides the details for doing so.

Bruffee relates the relative ease with which these studies can be replicated, and it is here that I have trouble with his argument. I agree that collaborative activities can help many nontraditional students to ease into the collegiate environment, and I believe a network of support systems is vital for these students to succeed. However, because of the huge number of differences between students and their backgrounds, I believe replicating these studies would be far more difficult than Bruffee leads his readers to believe. If a group has a large number of non-native speakers in it, it would have to be matched with a similar group for comparison purposes. It has been my experience that foreign students frequently fall into one class rather than spreading themselves out evenly among several classes. Also, the same ethnic group will often band together to take a particular class with other members of this same ethnicity, thus complicating research even further.

I will continue to provide an "arena for conversation" in my basic classes, but Bruffee's article did not convince me to venture into the classroom research in this particular area. I have done two controlled studies and I am well aware of the complications involved.

Article #7

Hansen, Evelyn. "A Brief Statement of Some Needs of Nontraditional Foreign*( Students in American Colleges and Universities." Alternative Higher Education. 6 (1982~- 139-41.

According to author Evelyn Hansen, there is a growing concern among faculty in higher education regarding the ever increasing number of nontraditional foreign students. The Committee on International Education of the College Entrance Examination Board has voiced once again their concern for the need for improved admission procedures. They believe this process should be one that screens applicants to make sure that students and college classes are well suited for each other. In addition, they express a problem regarding credentials verification, since many immigrant students have degrees from universities in their homeland that do not equate to degree standards in the United States. Yet another perceived problem before the immigrant students reach the classroom is a need for more extensive counseling regarding what they can expect from the American educational system. The National Association for Foreign Student Affairs continues to urge for the "adoptions of uniform standards as -well as a commitment to excellence in higher education." This association pushes administrators to ensure that all students have an adequate command of the language, access to complete support services staffed by knowledgeable employees, and curricula that as been designed with the unique needs of foreign students in mind. Classroom instructors are urged to see that the design, structure, content, materials, and evaluation of courses are suitable for foreign students.

On the surface this sounds like an extremely practical article; however, the author shied away from giving any real advice to classroom instructors. The article did mention that thii-was a themed issue on this particular topic; therefore, I am supposing that other articles in the journal gave more specific suggestions.

Although movement from Mexico to the United States had been taking place since the borders first existed, Mexican immigration rose significantly from 1910-1930. Not surprisingly, this huge increase in immigration from Mexico was marked in the beginning by the Mexican Revolution and in the end with the depression. In 1910, the Mexican economic conditions were extremely poor, leaving many Mexicans without jobs. At the same time, the United States was experiencing a period of intense agricultural development. Many workers were needed in the United States to harvest the crops; thus, both countries' needs were met as a result of immigration (Martinez iv-v).

This rapidly increasing pace and volume of immigrants from Mexico to the United States was stimulated by World War I and was interrupted only briefly in 1921 by the recession in the United States. However, the depression of 1930 ended twenty years of "vigorous and sustained" migration which brought approximately one million Mexicans to the United States. Immigration began to decline in 1930 because, as a result of the depression, Americans were now willing to take the lower class jobs they had previously tossed aside and given to immigrants from Mexico (Martinez 1-91).

After 1930, immigration slowed down to a trickle and Mexico even experienced a return movement where many former immigrants returned to their homeland. The reactions bf the two governments contrasted sharply. The United States vacillated, sometimes encouraging immigration, sometimes restricting it; however, the Mexican government more consistently opposed all immigration. From 1942 to 1964 the United States and Mexico maintained a formal temporary worker program, which brought millions of Mexicans to work in American industry and agriculture (Brown 1).

In the years that followed, the problem of illegal, undocumented workers crossing the border became magnified to the extent that in 1986 Congress felt it was necessary to take legal action in an effort to thwart this illegal movement. The Immigration Reform and Control Act, passed in 1986, imposed high sanctions against employers who hired illegal workers, and it also increased the budget of border patrol officers whose job it is to police this offense. Following the passage of this bill, there were highly publicized border crackdowns first in El Paso and later in San Diego. These actions yielded for the first time a new militarization of the Mexico-U.S. border. Congress recently extended this crackdown by authorizing the Immigration and Naturalization Service to hire 1,000 additional officers and 300 support personnel per year between 1996 and 2001. This action nearly doubled the size of the border patrol (Massey 1).

In 1994, California passed Proposition 187 by a wide margin. The passage of this proposition denied access of public services to undocumented immigrant workers. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) between Mexico, Canada, and the United States was touted as a means of preventing labor migration from Mexico. According to proponents of NAFTA, Mexico sought "to export goods not people." The agreement passed on January 1, 1994 and is backfiring regarding the issue of border-crossing suggests Douglas Massey in his article "March of Folly: US Immigration Policy After NAFTA." Massey's article tells us that NAFTA is promoting immigration rather than limiting it as had been hoped.

According to the Dallas Morning News on October 22, 1997, recent economic growth in Mexico could cause a major slowdown in Mexican immigration to the United States. The newspaper based this speculation on a "newly released binational study, which is under review by officials." The study makes the following predictions and suggestion: If Mexico's economy continues to grow at 5 percent, it will absorb all newcomers to the job market by 2005. Sustained growth will let Mexico catch up in job creation for unemployed and underemployed workers. Both nations should continue to develop means to anticipate and defuse tensions brought on by large-scale Mexican immigration-especially illegal immigration--and the U.S. response to it.

The newspaper article points out that United States officials are concerned that they are being inundated by large numbers of undocumented Mexican nationals coming to the country illegally. On the other hand, Mexican officials argue that some measures used by the US to ban immigration, such as the Operation Rio Grande, a river blockade in South Texas, are "a slap in the face to Mexico." Regardless of the obvious bickering between officials, immigration does seem to be better managed than at any previous time in our history. If countries can avoid blaming each other for past problems, a stronger bond between the two countries seems to be a reality at this time.

Bibliography

Associated Press. "Mexican Immigration May Slow, Study Says." Dallas

Morning News. 22 October 1997. Online. Internet. Available:

hftp://www.ncpa.org/pd/immigrat/pdimm/pdimm1 9.htmI

Brown, Peter and Henry Shue. The Border That Joins. Totowa, New Jersey:

Rowman and littlefield, 1983.

Martinez, John. Mexican Emigration to the US 1910-1930. Diss. University of

California, 1957. San Francisco and Saratoga: Robert D. Reed publisher

of Ethnic Studies, 1957.

Massey, Douglas. "March of Folly: US Immigration Policy After NAFTA." The

American Prospect 37 (1998): 22-33. Online. Internet. 26 June 1999.

The literature of Mexican-Americans can be traced back to Spanish exploration narratives, records and diaries. These primitive records provide an historical account of lives of early settlers in much the same way as William Bradford's Of Plymouth Plantation. The folk stories told in the oral tradition of the Mexican-Indian were l5tactically ignored in the scope of Mexican literature. However, in 1858 Americo Paredes wrote With his Pistol in his bj~d~ich gave scholarly attention to the folk base of Chicano literature.

From 1848-1900, Spanish language newspapers were of literary significance since they often contained the controversial articles that are now considered forerunners to the Chicano movement. The Mexican Revolution in 1910 provided the setting for many Chicano literary heroes in the following years. Two immigration novels preceded the Chicano!iterary renaissance of the 60's and 70's; Pocho by Jose Antonio Villareal and City of Nights by John Rechy are both considered landmark novels.

The first stage of Chicano nationalism came in the mid-60's and brought with it the initial attempts of Mexican-Americans to break years of Anglo domination. Two writers who rise to the top during this time period are Luis Valdez who wrote Actors and Los Vendidg~hich were designed to educate as well as entertain Chicano audiences. The writer Rodolfo Gonzales wrote the epic poem I Am Jo i~here he searches for his own identity which blends with the identify of the Chicano people.

The literature of the 1970's highlights a novel by Thomas Rivera, And the Earth Did Not Devour Him (translation). This story relates a year in an adolescent's life and focuses on his experiences as the son of a Mexican migrant worker. Rivera tried to place the Chicano as part of the "whole American scene" while keeping his distance from the Chicano movement itself. This book is still considered one of the literary masterpieces of Mexican-American literature. Another notable work is Ernesto Galarza's autobiography, Barrio Boy, set in Califormia in 1920. The author narrates the story of his family's assimilation into the American culture; some critics see this smooth, ideallic acculturation process he relates as unrealistic. Two more pieces of literature worth mentioning during this time period are Rudolfo Anaya's Bless Me, Ultima and Rolando Hinojosa's Estampas dell Valle. Both novels dwell on the determination and perseverance of Mexican-Americans who were recent immigrants who settled in the midst of those who have long-established roots in the community. Oscar Zeta Acosta tells the story of a Chicano lawyer searching for his identity in The Autobiography of a Brown Buffalo and its sequel The Revolt of the Cockroach People.

The mid-70's experienced a "flourishing of Chicano poet "usually about life in the barrio or in the prison. Two females emerged during this time period. Estella Portillo Trarnkley received recognition for her play The Day of the Swallows and later her short story collection Rain of Scorpions. Even more wellknown is Bernice Zamora whose poetry expresses a concern with the spiritual condition of modern society as well as the condition of women in a male dominated culture. Examples of these themes can be seen in her collection Restless Serpents. Alejandro Morales marks a turning point for the Chicano novels. His novel Old Faces and New Wine (translation) takes a more detailed look at life in the barrio. His focus was not to glamorize or to incite but to examine closely the violence and self-victimization of life in a hard-core nameless barrio.

The late 70's did provide one notable literary event. Luis Valdez's immensely successful play Zoot Suit was produced as a movie by Universal Studios. His fellow countrymen were quick to accuse him of selling-out to American commercialism. Toward the end of the 70's, Chicano literature seemed to be losing its focus. Writers were beginning to question the validity of the movement. As the fiery, militant Chicano movement died a natural death, writers now pivoted their attentions to a more serious examination of the oppression of females in their male-dominated culture.

During the early 80's Chicana writers made their forceful way into the literary scene by examining the interrelated issues of gender, ethnicity, and class. In 1981, two important works were published, both with female authors or editors Emplumada is a collection of poems by Lorna Dee Cervantes which reflect the writers struggle with issues of racial injustice, gender identity, and dual linguistic consciousness. The second collection is titled This Bridge Called My Back: Writing by Radical Women of Color and is edited by Cherri Moraga and Gloria Anzaldua.

Ana Castillo, Angela de Hoyos, Evangilina Vigil, Pat Mora and Sandra Cisneros verify the literary presence of female poets during the 1980s. In 1983 Cherrie Moraga published a unique autobiographical work composed of essays, poems and short stories titled Loving in the War Years. She writes from the unusual perspective of a female from Mexican heritage who is also a lesbian.

In 1987 Borderlands--La Frontera: the New Mestiza by Gloria Anzaldua again examines the issues of race, class and gender but takes this one step further in an attempt "to create a kirid of emotional/political chronology."

The males were not silent during the 80's despite the surge of feminist writing. One of the "more promising" male voices to emerge was that of Arturo Islas who died in 1991 after having written only two works, The Rain God (1983) and Migrant Souls (1990). "In both books the narrator is, in many ways, the authoes alter ego--a homosexual, physically handicapped academic--who writes a fictionalized autobiography." It is obvious through his writing that he too resents the patriarchy of the Mexican and American societies. Also, during the decade of the 80's some male authors mentioned previously continued to publish, Anaya, Hinojosa, Morales, and Medez. Richard Rodriguez wrote Hunger of Memo "-ich is still igniting heated debates regarding his stand on bilingual education, affirmative action programs, and issues of the second generation immigrant. He published Days of Obligation in 1992 hoping to resolve his strained dialogue with his parents.

In the past decade of the 90's Chicano literature has been discovered overseas in Germany, France, Spain, and Austria where their universities are organizing lectures and conferences on Chicano and Hispanic literature. Thirty years after its birth, Mexican-American literature is alive and continuing to grow and challenge its readers.

Bibliography

Savin, Ada. "Mexican-American Literature." New Immigrant Literature in the

United States: A Sourcebook to our Multicultural Literary Heritage. Ed.

Alpana Sharma Kni P-pling, (1996.) Westport CT: Greenwood, 341-359.

Interview Questions

1. What is your name? Lillie Mei-ling Langston -Sounder Ramchandran Natasha Bondar

2. What is your country of origin? Malaysia and China India Ukraine

3. What year did you immigrate to the United States? How old were you at this

time?

I came to the USA in 1977 when I was five years old.

1988, 24 years old.

I came here to go to college at 22.

4. Did you immigrate alone, with family members, or with friends? ! came here with my parents. Alone. I am here by myself.

5. Why did you immigrate to the United States? What were the political

conditions in your home country at the time of your immigration?

My father is Anglo-American-he felt that the educational system in the United States was the "best opportunity" for his children, considering the stringent school system overseas. In my countries of origin, children are tested rigorously at the age of eleven to see if they are "worthy" of been allowed to have an education. After being give a barrage of exams over a two week period, the school administrators and government decide if the child is given the chance to receive an education or put into the workforce. Communist China/Parliament--Malaysia/ConstitutionaI Monarchy To pursue graduate studies. When I came to America to attend college, the Soviet Union has been dissolved for over 10 years. Ukraine has been an independent country. The political and economical situations have been unstable.

6. What expectations did you have regarding the US before you arrived? What

things surprised you about the US? How was the US different from what you

expected?

I had been told the "melting pot" myth and at that time believe in it. The USA is a lot more "open" (Non-conservative) than the countries I was acclimated to in my youth. When we first moved permanently to the US we resided outside Los Angles (near Huntington Beach) and I remember being surprised at how much skin people showed in public places (my mother said the first time we went to the beach I repeatedly asked her in Chinese "Mommy, why are all of those people undressed? Have they no shame?. Although I moved here when I was five, I returned to my native countries every summer until I graduated high school. Another difference is the punishment of crime-Malaysia has a stringent "NO DRUG" policy that allows for zero concessions-as in if the Malaysian government catches someone in possession of an illegal substance they are put to death within one year, no matter what their country of origin is. It sounds tough, but they have very little drug trafficking or citizens addicted to drugs. Personal space and privacy has a lot of emphasis, therefore most interaction between people tends to be more formal. I think I expected there to be no poverty. I expected people to dress neater. I mean general population here. I was mainly surprised by the appearance of Houston (and Texas in general) because it looked very different from the movies and TV shows that I saw in Ukraine. I was mainly surprised by how much space there is in Houston (big distances between places). I was also surprised that most people live in private houses not apartments.

7. What problems have you encountered in attempting to assimilate into the

North American culture?

Well1 have family that resides at various places around the world, so that I have had the opportunity to travel quite a bit and I would have to say (sadly enough) that America is perhaps one of the most prejudice-filled countries in the world-even in modem times, this is a place where a person is judged by the colour of their skin before the words from their mouth. None that stands out.

I can't think of any significant ones.

8. How often do you return (or plan to return) to your homeland?

I used to go home for three months out of the year (summer), but now (With work and graduate school) I haven't been able to make it overseas in over two years. I plan to visit next summer. I have lived in the US for 11 years, and I have been back to India twice. I haven't been back.

9. Do you plan to continue living in the United States or return permanently to

your homeland?

I plan to stay in the USA for now, I'm not sure if I'll remain here for the rest of my life but I'm tied here with work and school for now. I plan to continue living in the US. I 'd like to stay here for a while (for school and possibly work) then I will pray and wait for God to lead me to what is next.

10. Did you know English when you first arrived in the US? Yes, but I had a British accent because of my preschool teachers and family friends abroad. My father and two of his Peace Corps friends were the only Americans I had ever heard speak. I thought they sounded "rough." Yes Yes

I want my future children to be secure and confident in their interactions with other American children. I would want to ensure that they have a very good knowledge and understanding about their roots and value the diversity and rich heritage of India. I have enjoyed such American qualities as light-heartedness (playfulness being able to enjoy life.) I like the fact that this country was built on Christian principles (even though they are fading these days) and appreciate the blessings and comforts here. I'd like my children to be comfortable and be able to function well in both countries, but their lives built not on the basis of.culture but on Christian principles. "z-

13. What advice would you give others who are considering coming to the US?

Considering all the changes you will have to make in the attempt to acclimate yourself into American culture and society, bring money because American is VERY EXPENSIVE, and remember that the USA is a wonderful country where you can achieve a lot if you have the will to work for it. The "American Dream" does exist, but in small quantities --- know your goals. Come with an open mind, and with the intention of learning and becoming a part of the culture of this country. Take in everything that this country has to offer, and learn from both, the good and bad. Retain all the positive things and use it to enrich your life and those around you. Attempt to get to know others outside your culture and be prepared to share your culture with others as well.

Know whether God is leading you and where He is leading to.

16. What do you recall regarding speaking experiences with those outside your

ethnic group when you first arrived?

Since I am bi-racial, I didn't really have an "ethnic" group. I spoke English and Chinese fluently. What I remember most is my American classmates thinking that I spoke strangely because I had a British accent. I remember being asked questions such as "Are there e)ephants in

Bombay?" "Do people really worship cows in India?'

Most often, the questions tended to be more for a verification purpose. Usually, it was based on something that they had heard/read/or seen ~s . Most of the conversations were pleasant.

I did not have a whole lot of contact with people of different ethnicity. And those with whom I had some interaction didn't seem any different than people of my ethnic group.

Follow-up Observations

I noticed that all three immigrants interviewed had especially strong English skills when they arrived in the United States. I think this definitely eased their assimilation process. There was some mention of problems assimilating to the culture, but overall this seemed minimal. Lillie's situation appeared similar to that of the.Garcia Girls because she, too, spent summers in her homeland for many years; thereby, continuing some level of immersion in the culture of Malaysia. She comes from a wealthy family and her parents also were able to ensure that she could receive the best education possible. Her description of incidents of prejudice reminded me of the older Garcia gid who was the victim of name-calling, and in Pocho when the advisor tried to steer him toward vocational courses telling him that it was "the only way people of your nationality can get ahead." Lillie was misplaced in school because the counselors thought she was a Mexican and put her in bilingual classes even though she was fluent in English. Lillie is also the eldest of several sisters and one brother. Like Yolanda in Garcia Girls, Lillie expressed an interest in women's rights and acknowledged that this freedom was fairly unique to the United States. She also expressed a concern for the lack of emphasis placed on family unity. This theme was noticed in Pocho, when the mother wanted Pocho to quit school and go to work for the sake of the family, and in Garcia Girls as well when the father relished the birthday celebrations with their nuclear family. Lillie even states that the American Dream does e 4ibut is quick to qualify it and point out that it may be only in small quantities. Lillie sees her own immigration but more story in light of the novel Joy Luck Club. The similarities certainly e6 because she is Asian and can relate directly with the culture; however, her answers show a stronger comparison to Garcia Girls.

Natasha frequently speaks of religion and is pleased that America is based on Christian principles. These answers pull me toward a comparison with Bradford's Of Plymouth Plantation where the immigrants travel to America with that very purpose in mind. Like the early Puritans, Natasha relies on guidance from the Lord to steer her future, as well as her present assimilation. Natasha, although an avid reader, was not able to relate a Russian immigrant story. Perhaps, this is because immigration had been fairly unheard of until recently following peristroika in 1986. The Russian immigrant stories are still being written possibly.

Sounder is a chemical engineer who seems well acculturated. He immigrated from India for his graduate studies and has only returned twice in eleven years. His interview revealed very little conflict or internal struggle, perhaps because I don't khow him as well as I do the other two. The conflict may be there but he could be less comfortable revealing it to a relative stranger. This lack of candor reminded me of the mother in Monkey Bridge. Of course, I am only speculating that Sounder is revealing less than what is there, but moving to a foreign country at a relative young age without the built-in support of his family leads me to draw this conclusion. Also, referring back to the generational study I reported on, Sounder is in the group that would be most likely to have a difficult time assimilating. It could be that since he has been here for eleven years, many of those old wounds have healed and, again like Mai's mother, he is hesitant to reopen them.