Alfred Valdez
Literature 5733
White
7/27/99

Chicano Literature as Binational Literature

What do you call an American born person with a Mexican lineage? What may sound like the beginning of a bad ethnic joke, is, in this day, a very viable question. The answer is not quite clear. Politically correct terms like "Hispanic," "Latino," "Chicano," and "Mexican American" as well as derogatory terms like' pocho" are bandied about, with different people preferring differing terms. With this type of confusion over what a group of people want to call themselves, it is no wonder that there is also the same type of confusion when it comes to pinpointing exactly what sort of literature is created by Americans with a Mexican ethnic background.

The question of how to categorize this work, labeled Chicano literature, is still very much in debate. The two most common classifications placed on Chicano literature are immigrant literature or minority literature. Evaluating many of the works by Mexican-American authors only serves to muddy the question further. While one work, Pocho, by such an author as Jose Antonio Villarreal has all the earmarks of classic immigrant literature, another work, The House on Mango Street, by Sandra Cisneros, seems to toss out all those immigrant literature trappings and the work looks like a model minority tale. Yet, the two pieces have added a quality that disqualifies them in the respective styles. Adding other authors like Rudolfo Anaya, Gary Soto and Denise Chavez, into the mix only complicates matters more. Their works draw inspiration from both the immigrant and minority schools of literature and end up becoming a mixture of both styles.

Nowhere is this more evident than in the immigrant literature theme of self-identification. While this theme is a staple in most Chicano literature, there is a twist to the theme that sets it apart from the typical immigrant story. The way Chicano literature uses language, which again is very important in immigrant literature, also show some differences from the traditional immigrant narrative. While most immigrant literature tends to accept the idea that learning English is a key to assimilation, the Mexican-American fights that idea. These differences in d self-identification theme and language tend to be influenced by minority literature. As result, Chicano literature becomes a mixture of the two styles. It is this hybrid of styles which could be termed as binational literature, that should categorize most Chicano literature. This proposed third category could put an end to some of the confusion in trying to properly classify this literature. These works, while sharing many stylistic similarities with the immigrant and minority genres, deserve their own spot on the literary landscape. They are stories told by people being influenced by the distinct cultures of two neighboring countries as their allegiances are pulled in two different directions. It is that immigrant experience intertwined with the minority angst that ends up becoming a confusion-riddled existence that reflects the lives of many Mexican-Americans and brought to life in the literature.

Classifying what Chicano, literature actually is can be a daunting task because works that are produced by Mexican-Amencan writers are vast and vaned. However, there are some defining characteristics that most Chicano literature shares. According to Luis Leal and Pepe Barron, authors of an essay discussing the characteristics of Chicano literature, the works are usually of a revolutionary or social protest nature that try to portray the complex nature of the people (Baker, 13). This accounts for the vast areas covered by ChIcano literature. Works in this genre can range anywhere from a poem discussing the social economic conditions of the group to a novel on the historical background of the people. Leal and Baff6 go on to say that another defining characteristic of Chicano literature is the proud references to the group's Indian heritage which leads to a preoccupation to the historical background of the people and sets up a theme common to many of the works.

The idea of developing an individual's self-definition is played out in many of the works by Chicano writers. Not only is this theme dominant in many Chicano narratives; it also pops up time and time again in traditional immigrant literature. For example, in Amy Tan's novel, The Joy Luck Club, the Americanized girls all struggle to break away from an historical identity to develop an identity all their own. In the novel, the girls struggle to come to terms with their past, which is represented by their mothers, in order to move ahead and develop this self-identity. Not until they come to terms with their backgrounds do they ever become their own selves. In a key moment in the novel, one of the girls, Waverly, is trying to tell her mother that she plans on marrying an American. She has difficulty making a connection with her mother, Lindo Jong, to tell her news. All the past differences between the two are summed up when Waverly says:

In this passage, Waverly comes face to face with her past, her mother, and sees that she has to accept if she is ever going to become her own person and move on with her life. While this theme of self-definition is also played out in Chicano literature, it usually comes with a twist. The same struggle with the past is there but the protagonist does not want to come to terms with his or her history in order to escape it. Instead, the protagonist struggles with the idea of including his or her past into the new self-identity. In fact, it is vital for the Mexican-American to not only include his or her past into the new identity but to make that past an indispensable part of that identity. Whereas, the Chinese-American girls in The Joy Luck Club come to terms with their history and move on, Mexican-Americans have a need to drag that past with them, making it an essential part of any new identity.

Two of the most popular and critically acclaimed Chicano literature novels deal with this very issue. In Rudolfo A. Anaya's Bless Me Ultima, and Sandra Cisneros' The House on Mango Street, this idea is played out with the respective protagonists. In The House on Mango Street, Esperanza, the young woman in the story, yearns to break away from her current situation, which has been due in large part to her ethnic history. Her life is filled with sexism, poverty and misfortune and she is exposed to sexual and physical abuse. She dreams of escaping her house on Mango Street that symbolizes her current and past existence and moving into a beautiful new home far away from Mango Street. Yet, Esperenza, who despises her situation, comes to realize that it is this very existence that defines her. "You will always be Mango Street. You can't erase what you know. You can't forget who you are" (Cisneros, 105) a fortune-telling women tells her. Later in the novel, a good friend tells Esperanza, "Like it or not you are Mango Street, and one day you'll come back, too" (106). Finally, at the end of the novel, Esperanza finally realizes that she must accept the idea that her individuality comes directly from her life and that she has an obligation not to forget her past, and in fact, has a duty to return to her paso "They will know that I have gone away to come back. For the ones I left behind. For the ones who cannot out" (110). This notion of having to embrace your history but also having the responsibility to return to help others in your ethnic group also differentiates Chicano literature from traditional immigrant literature. The idea of returning is more in the lines of classic minority literature. As a result you have an overlap of the two styles. The Mexican-Amenican wishes and yearns to escape the past but there is always a moral obligation pulling him or her back. A confusing awkwardness ensues as the Mexican-American protagonist struggles with this conflict. In Anaya's Bless Me Ultima, a similar situation occurs as Antonio Marez, a young boy, struggles to decide what lies ahead for him in the future. He comes from a family made up of two very different people. His father's side of the family are nomadic wanderers moving from place to place and taking what is available. His mother's side of the family are farmers who settle in one place and cultivate the land. Antonio, under the guidance of Ultima, an old woman tied to the ancient traditions of the Mexican people, learns to embrace his history and make it part of him. Near the end of the novel, Antonio has this exchange with his father:

After this exchange, Antonio begins to realize and put into focus all the things Ultima tried to teach him about his place in the world. At the novel's end, Antonio is still uncertain about his future but he realizes that whatever it is, it will have to include some of this paoometime in the future I would have to build my own dream out of those things that were so much a part of my childhood7(248). This recognition that a self-identity must come from two varying cultures is a problem that has long preoccupied Mexican-Amencan wnters.

The preoccupation dates back to three distinct historical events. First, the United States was granted much of the southwestern United States via the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo of 1848 following the Mexican War. The important aspect here is that Mexican citizens living in the ceded territories were given one year to decide if they would remain in the territory, retain all property and become United States citizens or to move back to Mexico and remain Mexican citizens. The new American citizens were guaranteed the right to retain all cul d religious freedoms they held as Mexican citizens. The majority of Mexicans living in these territories remained since the treaty provisions seemed simple enough. However, this action brought about many problems between

Anglos and Mexicans.

Many obstacles inevitably arose from differing cultural viewpoints and historical experience. Anglo-Americans stressed heavily the role of the individual, who was expected to use his rugged individualism and drive for personal benefit. On the other hand, the Spanish-Mexican view tended to subordinate individual advantage to community welfare (Meier, 68). The second event that confused the Mexican-United States landscape was the Mexican Revolution in the late 19'h and early 20d' centuries. This event was the catalyst for the immigration of many Mexican citizens into the United States. Thousands of Mexican citizens crossed the border northward fleeing from everything from poverty to political persecution. Crossing into the United States was easy, as the borders were open. A new wave of immigration made its way into the United States. These two events clouded the picture as the newly acquired region of the country was filled with a naturalized minority and traditional immigrants, both sharing a single ethnic background. To muddle the confusion even more, the United States entered World War I in 1917 and many newly naturalized Mexican-Americans served, bonding their allegiance to a new country even tighter, despite the fact that many Anglos in the Southwest still considered the Mexican-American to be a foreigner. It is no wonder that Mexican-American is tom when trying to establish a single identity. This struggle to maintain old ties while trying to fit into a different culture makes the Mexican Americans a people caught in the middle and this struggle is obvious in much of Chicano literature. One of the first Chicano novels to emerge from this confusion was Villarreal's Pocho. This novel is considered a breakthrough in Chicano literature, it is apparent that Villarreal was breaking new ground with this novel. The novel is awkward and uneven in many areas, but it does share some of the components that make up what is known as Chicano literature, including the ever-present theme of self-identity. However, this novel differs from some of the other Chicano literature works in that Richard, the protagonist, feels that the only way to gain a self-identity is to break away from his culture. The novel ends with Richard pondering his future:

Judging the novel by the ending, one would think this to be a traditional immigrant story; however, that is not the case. Although he ultimately decides to break away from his past, various times in the novel Richard does struggle with the idea of melding his two cultures together to help form a single identity. The ending of the novel almost dismisses this work as a candidate for binational literature. In fact, critics of the novel say the work is too idealistic and that Villarreal oversimplifies many of the issues he brings up in tile novel. Many critics hesitantly include this work in the canon of Chicano literature, saying many of its assertions really do not fit into the ideals of typical Chicano literature. One such critic is Raymund Paredes, who writes in an essay:

Parees goes on to explain that this idealistic idea of accepting someone based on his own merit is almost understandable for the young boy Richard, but criticizes Villarreal for sharing the same opinion.

However, taking into account that this was one of the first attempts to capture the Mexican-American experience, one has to acknowledge the groundbreaking efforts by Villarreal. However, the mere argument of whether or not to include Pocho in the genre known as Chicano literature, draws into focus the need for a separate niche in which to classify these types of works. Thus, Chicano literature ends up developing its own pattern in the common theme of a character developing a self-identity. In much the same way, it also provides its own spin on the role of language in a person's assimilation process. In the typical immigrant narrative, the immigrant tries to learn English as quickly as possible. In learning the language the character develops power and finds it easier to fit into the mainstream. The mother-tongue is quickly replaced with the American way of speech. In Dominican writer Julia Alverez's How the Garcia Girls Lost their Accents, one of the main characters, Yolanda becomes obsessed with the language. She uses her knowledge to control various situations. The further she assimilates in the American culture, the less and less she retains her Spanish skills. Early in the novel, which shows Yolanda in her most assimilated state, having car trouble in a guava grove away from civilization, runs across two native Dominican men who inquire into her problem. She is petrified and cannot speak:

Yolanda has been given permission to accept her role as an assimilated American and feels relief, comfort and power in her new found language as the men, discovering her nationality, quickly move to help out the American. In contrast, the Chicano looks at language differently. The Mexican-American tends to hold on Spanish as long as possible.

However, these Spanish speakers have refused to follow the generational assimilation plan as defined by the more cooperative European groups, preferring to remain loyal to their native tongue. This recalcitrance is, then, by definition at the heart of the problem (Novoa, 43). Again, the Mexican-American is at odds with the two conflicting cultures. They want to tim

.etain their identity with the homeland through language but, at the same e fit into the American mainstream. In Cisnero's The House on Mango Street, the issue of language is brought up several times. In the chapter entitled 'No Speak English" Cisneros tells of a woman, Mamacita, who is brought to the United States from Mexico by her husband. She is miserable and refuses to learn the new language longing to return to her homeland, but at the same time realizing that her return will never happen. However, she clings to the last thread, her native tongue that ties her to her homeland. She breaks down and cries as she realizes her child has begun to learn English via the television set:

And to break her heart forever, the baby boy, who has begun to talk, starts to sing the Pepsi commercial he heard on T.V. No speak English, she says to the child who is singing in the language that sounds like tin. No speak English, no speak English, and bubbles into tears. No, no, no, as if she can't believe her ears (78). Mamacita is like many other Mexican -Americans in that they do not want to learn the new language. They believe holding on to their native tongue gives them an identity all their own. Many other characters in Chicano literature eventually go on, sometimes begrudgingly, to learn English, but more often times than not, there is a sense of loss when the language is lost. Many times the Chicano, goes back to try and recover their lost language. Again the Mexican-American becomes confused and delves into another inner struggle. He or she understands the value and necessity of learning English and getting a good education but is in constant conflict with the idea. Learning English and forgetting the mother tongue almost becomes an act of betrayal. In Villarreal's Pocho, Richard learns the language but his parents have a difficult time accepting the idea.

In the novel, the father is torn between the two cultures, and has difficulty accepting the idea that he needs to learn a new language.

While Chicano literature can be traced, in one form or another, back to the mid-17th century, it is a relatively new genre on the literary landscape. It continues to define and redefine itself. As a result, labeling its style is difficult. On one reading, one can find all the earmarks of the typical immigrant narrative - the need for an education, the learning of the new language, and the all-important the struggle for the American dream. Yet, on another reading, the works seem to be influenced by minority themes--alienation, poverty, distrust of authority, the role of women and discrimination. So, what style does Chicano literature follow? The answer must be neiter ~)::rd classification, Binational Literature, should be established to define the styles encompassed by Mexican-American writers. The situation Mexican-Americans find themselves in is unique --people being pulled by two vastly different cultures and history, and traditions. Since the experience

of the Mexican American are unique, it makes only sense that their written work be

granted its own unique style.

Works Cited

Alvarez, Julia, How the Garcia Girls Lost their Accents. New York: Plume Books, 199 1.

Anaya, Rudolfo A., Bless Me, Ultima. Berkley, Ca.: Tonatiuh International, 1972.

Tan, Amy, The Joy Luck Club. New York: Ivy Books, 1989.

Villarreal, Jose Antonio, Pocho. New York: Anchor Books, 1959.