LITR 4332 American Minority Literature Model Assignments Research Project Submissions 2013 research journal

Rebecca Bridjmohan

19 April 2013

Assimilation vs. Resistance and the Lifelong Struggles of the American Indians

Introduction:

            Reflecting back on the numerous objectives that we have learned through this semester, objectives that make me want to learn more are the ones covering involuntary or forced participation and the one about the minority dilemma. This semester I have learned that every culture, as discussed in class, has some sort of origin story, and it is only natural that as humans, we long to understand where we come from and how we got there. Sometimes through acculturation and assimilation our origin stories become lost and therefore not as important as they once were. With minority groups their origin stories might not be anything to celebrate, because they were forced to assimilate; however, that does not mean that they are not important to the groups. I want to be able to understand why origin stories are so important to the American Indian people and why people have forgotten them. It has been said that American Indians are the native peoples of our lands, yet when you look around there are not too many American Indians who live within our society. American Indians have been through numerous trials throughout their existence, but they have shown to be resilient people, some unwavering of their old customs and spiritual ways with Mother Nature. Although the American Indians showed resilience, it is my understanding that the American Indians had only two choices when grappling with the issue of western customs: acculturate or resist. This is why I want to explore the effects of assimilation and resistance. Perhaps after exploring the effects of assimilation and resistance, I can also uncover the reasons why some American Indians decided to assimilate, while others chose to resist. Furthermore, after reading Louise Erdrich’s Love Medicine my curiosity about reservations and the living conditions that American Indians are confined to has increased. I would like to research why reservations are associated with issues like violence, sexual assault, and rape. With negative living conditions on reservations, the population of American Indians continues to decrease and I would also like to investigate if there is a threat that they might vanish from society all together.

Understanding the Origin Stories:

            As previously discussed in class, American Indians used storytelling as a way to pass down their origin story. Mary Rajotte, the author of The Role of Story Telling in Native American Tribes, explains that story telling became important as Native Americans explored their land. This makes sense considering that most American Indian tribes were constantly on the move in search of food or shelter. She also says that story telling was used to pass down traditions, such as how to live off the land, how to survive in the natural environment in which they lived, and local customs that were important to them (Rajotte). Because story telling was so important to the American Indians, creation myths were one of the most well-known traditions for the tribes (Rajotte). A creation story, though varied, for the American Indians brought understanding to their customs as well as answering questions about things that were beyond their grasp.

            Just like in Christianity where man is believed to have derived from Adam, who was created by God, the American Indians believed in a higher power but they often relied on nature as the higher power. Comparing the creation stories of the American Indians discussed in class to those of modern concepts of creationism and evolution, I can say that the American Indians’ stories were a lot more complex and harder to believe, but it could be because these types of creation stories are new to me.

            American Indians also used a variety of ways to tell their stories since they did not write their stories down. A few ways that they were able to share their stories were by song, music, and dance (Rajotte). Perhaps, the reason for variation in creation stories is because the stories were not written down. But whatever the case, the American Indians chose ways to share their stories so that they would connect tribe members and illustrate their history (Rajotte). Of all of the creation stories discussed in class, I can see now why they are so varied especially considering the numerous tribes of the American Indian people. Because the culture was so important to them I can also see why they were resistant when it came to the American way of life.

Resistance:

            Even though American Indian people share their culture with one another, there seems to be an issue with each generation losing bits and pieces of their culture. Jon Reyhner puts things in perspective when he writes that there are an estimated two million people who claim to be American Indian in the United States, yet of those two million people only 361,978 still speak one of the remaining 154 indigenous languages (Reyhner). That is a large number of people who cannot speak their native tongue. He goes on to further state that the ones who speak the languages tend to be elderly (Reyhner). This means that as the ones who speak the languages get older and eventually die, the language dies with them. Considering what Reyhner says about the language being lost, I can understand why American Indians would be hesitant to assimilate into the American culture.

            The resolution to keeping the language alive is the isolation and confinement of the American Indian people to the reservations (Reyhner). However, with roads, satellites, and other technological advancements it is only a matter of time before the ways of the American people catch up with the American Indians who live in isolation. Through an interview with an elderly Navajo, the person stated that ‘Television is robbing our children of language’ (Reyhner). The idea that television is robbing them of their native language really opens my eyes. Never in a million years would I think that television could rob someone of their native language, yet the person who stated that has a valid point especially considering that the majority of television programming is in English. Reyhner goes on to state that as Navajo children learn English and the mainstream culture through media and through school, they become increasingly separated from their grandparents, who relish in the old customs and who speak little to no English (Reyhner). Schools are not exactly emphasizing native languages; rather they are trying to teach students to speak English so that they can assimilate into the American society. With many opposing minority language, American Indian languages are bound to disappear unless they work to keep the languages alive within their communities.

            Although minority cultural censorship is nothing new to the American Indian people, they have had to endure countless efforts of suppression since the late 1800’s. In the 1880’s the U.S. government required all instruction for Native Americans to be taught in English and traditional Indian ceremonies like the Sun Dance of the Plains were prohibited (Reyhner). This ongoing battle since the 1880’s to keep American Indian culture thriving shows that the American Indians are proud of the culture and will fight to keep it alive. The loss of the language brings other problems for the Native American people. One issue that the American Indian youth face is that they are unable to identify with their older community, which then turns them to gangs, drugs, and alcohol (Reyhner). In Louise Erdrich’s Love Medicine the majority of the characters in the story have some sort of issue with alcohol or with just coping in general with the changes to their ways of life. You can feel their pain and hurt from their behavior, yet I could not understand why they would choose the abuse until coming across Reyhner’s article. The deconstruction of the American Indian culture is causing destructive behavior among the youth. And with gangs and drugs, their quality of life hangs in the balance. Seeing the domino effect of the American culture clashing with the American Indian culture, I can understand why they are resistant to change and conform towards the American way of life.

Assimilation:

            Although some American Indians showed resistance to change, there is an account of a situation where one tribe was willing to trade tradition for the American way of life. Some Cherokees expressed their desire to conform to the European culture even before their relocation to Oklahoma (Joyce). The Cherokees chose to assimilate in hopes for a better life and at the time there were advantages for developing the American culture. Cherokees who chose to assimilate were given the chance to prosper economically and to assimilate into the American culture by marriage and performances of loyalty to their occupiers (Joyce). With the promises of money and a better life, the Cherokees who chose to assimilate did so to better themselves. Parts of the culture and heritage were lost in the attempts to conform to ideals that were not customary, which had devastating effects on the remaining members of the tribe (Joyce). Assimilation was not an idea that most American Indians were willing to buy into, and even today many of the elderly members of tribes are hesitant to let go over their old customs.

Problems with Reservation Life:

            According to the American Indian Relief Council the living conditions amongst the American Indians today have been cited as ‘comparable to Third World’. This is hard to fathom considering that these people once roamed freely and lived off of the land. However, about forty percent of the country’s 4.9 million Native Americans live on reservations (Living Conditions). Considering that almost half of the entire American Indian population lives on reservations, one of the first thoughts that comes to mind is their lifestyle and their quality of life. The American Indians are struggling daily and face many challenges including economics, health, and housing.

            Unfortunately, Tribal and Federal governments are the largest employers on the reservations, and the scarcity of jobs and lack of economic opportunity mean that there are large numbers of American Indians who are unemployed (Living Conditions). Furthermore, many of the households are overcrowded, meaning that there are more mouths to feed than there is food available. Shockingly, the overall percentage of American Indians living below the federal poverty line is 28.2%, which is over a fourth of the population (Living Conditions). Because of the high unemployment rate, many American Indians are forced to seek work off of the reservation. In return this means that the elderly grandparents are left to raise the children while the parents work menial jobs to support their families (Living Conditions).

            Another problem on the rise is heath care. Because Indian Health Service facilities are based on immediate medical attention, there is a gap in adequate and preventative health care for many Native Americans on the reservations (Living Conditions). The article from the American Indian Relief Council website states that “Pharmacies and doctor’s offices outside of hospitals are completely non-existent in some communities”. If someone needs medical attention for minor injuries, there is a good chance that they will not receive the care they need, considering the pharmacies we see on almost every corner here in our society are absent where they are probably needed the most. 

            Housing is also another issue amongst American Indians living on reservations. Although, the Indian Housing Authority has attempted to help many American Indians who are living in substandard housing (Living Conditions). The people who were once free to live off of the land are now subject to substandard living. The American Indian Relief Council website confirms that about 40% of on-reservation housing is considered adequate, which is less than half (Living Conditions). The other 60% of on-reservation housing should not be lived in, yet the Native Americans who live on the reservations do not have much of a choice in the matter. Part of why the housing is deemed inadequate is that most homes lack running water, telephones, electricity, and other utilities that other Americans outside of a reservation enjoy. Considering the living conditions there is no wonder why reservations are associated with violence, alcoholism, and substance abuse.

Violence on the Reservations:

            An article published this year uncovers that the number of violent crimes committed on Indian Reservations are up and the prosecutions are down. Timothy Williams, a columnist from the New York Times, reports that the Justice Department files charges on only about half of Indian Country murder investigations and that it turns down nearly-two thirds of sexual assault cases (Williams). This means that there are violent crimes being committed on the reservations and the criminals are going unprosecuted. According to the Justice Department, of the country’s three-hundred and ten Indian reservations, the violent crime rates are more than two and a half times the national average (Williams). The prime victims of these violent crimes are the American Indian women, who are ten times more likely to be murdered than other Americans (Williams). Women on the reservations have to live in constant fear of violence, sexual assault, and rape. Prosecutors who turn down these cases defend their actions by claiming that there is a lack of admissible evidence (Williams). Unfortunately for the women living on the reservations, there is not a lack of fear for their lives, rather a lack of justice. According to the article, the justice seems to fail the American Indian females living on reservations.

            However, according to federal law, the tribal courts have the authority to prosecute tribal members from crimes committed on reservations, but they cannot sentence those convicted of their crimes for more than three years in prison, so for serious crimes tribes usually seek federal prosecution (Williams). But of those serious crimes brought to federal prosecution, they go unprosecuted. Many tribal members blame the government for declining prosecutions because they believe that sloppy police work has jeopardized a conviction (Williams). Federal prosecutors have declined to file charges in fifty-two percent of cases involving the most serious crimes committed on Indian reservations in 2011, according to data collected from the Transactional Records Access Clearinghouse at Syracuse University (Williams). The fact the Native American women have to endure living in fear and crimes that go unpunished is appalling. But considering the living conditions and other factors that make reservation life unhealthy, I can see why characters like Albertine Johnson from Louise Erdrich’s Love Medicine seek life outside of the reservation. 

The Vanishing Race:

            Life on the reservations has hurt the American Indians more than they have helped. David R.M. Beck, an associate professor of Native American studies at the University of Montana, states that the American Indian nations and the people have been viewed as a vanishing race by scholars and government officials (Beck). If government officials and scholars have taken enough to comment on the situation, then perhaps they can identify the reasons for the population decrease.

            They believe that the cause for the decreased population is due to two theories: “the view that America’s continental ‘Manifest Destiny’ was successfully completed in geographic terms, that the ‘frontier’ had been closed by Euro-American expansion into every part of this nation;” and Social Darwinism (Beck). The Social Darwinism theory suggests that cultures battles with one another to the point where one triumphed over the other and the losing side became extinct. Furthermore, the Social Darwinism theory combined with surrounding evidence of the decline in American Indian populations, along with the federal policy of forced assimilation, led to the belief that the American Indian culture would vanish. Beck writes that the American Indians had endured highly destructive assaults in physical, spiritual, and emotional terms (Beck). Due to the combination of violence and disease, some tribal communities lost as many as ninety percent of their members (Beck). He also notes that the population loss continued well into the nineteenth century (Beck). Some may even argue that it continue in today’s time because of the life style American Indians are exposed to while living on reservations.

            The mentality of most Euro-Americans during the early 1900s, courtesy of Richard Henry Pratt’s saying, was to ‘Kill the Indian and save the man’ (Beck). The saying itself is harsh, but this is exactly what happened to the American Indians in the United States. Unfortunately, the mentality was common amongst most Euro-Americans, and the killing of the Indians began by forced assimilation, where the American Indians were forced to adhere to the foreign American customs. Between the late 1880’s and the mid 1930’s this harsh philosophy about destroying the Indian culture and the efforts formed the central basis of federal Indian policy, where the “communal land holdings were individualized and tribal governments were systematically undercut (Beck). Land that once “belonged” to the Indians were taken away but redistributed to the tribal governments who then conveniently decided how the land would be used.

            In Beck’s essay, he concludes that the federal policy of forced assimilation was in itself recognition that Indians had not disappeared from America, and the official reversal of that policy in the 1930’s was an acknowledgement that the Indian people had not vanished as either a people or as political communities (Beck). Although the American Indians people were put through extreme trials, they managed to survive in reality, but Beck says that they did not survive in the mythology of the larger culture (Beck). In today’s society, the idea of the American Indian is equivalent to an endangered species because you do not see many Native Americans active in the public eye.

Conclusion:

            After exploring numerous aspects about the American Indian culture, I feel like I have gained an understanding about the culture and all of the struggles that they have had to endure over the years. The first feature that I felt that needed to be researched was the origin stories that were passed down from tribe to tribe because they were significant to the culture as a whole. It makes sense that a people so in tune with the earth would have stories revolving around Mother Nature and other elements of nature. Reading Mary Rajotte’s article The Role of Story Telling in Native American Tribes helped to understand that these stories were not only a part of the culture but also a part of a person’s own experience. Perhaps, the Native Americans understanding for nature and the importance of the tribe made it hard to assimilate when the American culture was introduced.  Jon Reyhner’s article Cultural Survival vs. Forced Assimilation focused on the issues that many Native Americans are having with assimilation when the American culture was first introduced and the issues with assimilation in today’s society. Unfortunately, through his findings, the American Indians growing up in this generation are at a disadvantage for learning their native language. In fact there are three hundred thousand out of nearly two million people who speak in their native tongue and the numbers decrease with every generation. This may not be a problem for other Americans, who are only able to speak one language, but this is an issue with American Indians, who cannot connect with the elder people in their communities, and therefore lose part of their culture. One person interviewed in the article suggested that the solution for the disconnection was to keep the people of the tribes isolated where the outside world could not influence the language. Being cut off to the world around them would mean that they would not be exposed to the latest technology or other advancements. Personally, being shut-off the outside world does not limit the problems and sometimes isolation can make them worse. But when you have people who feel that the only way to conserve the culture is by complete isolation, then you may have a problem.

                Although the American people continue to resist the changes to the world around them I have also found that some Native American people prefer to assimilate. Take the Cherokee people discussed in Melissa Joyce’s article about the impacts of assimilation. In her article she spoke of Cherokee people who wanted to assimilate because they wanted to have a better life and partake in the advantages of the American culture. Money and promises of a better life were the promises that caused these Cherokee people to assimilate into the Euro-American culture. Little did they know that many years later that their ancestors would be put on reservations that were not even fit to house livestock. The reservation issue has caused significant health, housing, and economical problems within the American Indian community. Indians living on the reservations are limited to the type of jobs and the housing is just inadequate. American Indians living on the reservations do not even have the luxury of healthcare unless they are seriously injured. The issues surrounding reservation life has also cause violence on the reservations. Women of the community have to live in fear of abuse, sexual assault, rape, and murder. And the efforts that are being put forth to bring justice to the victims go unattended because the criminals are going unprosecuted. Life in general on the reservations is tough, which make me wonder why anyone would want to stay. And then with the thought that the entire American Indian population is in danger of vanishing makes me want to explore what we can do as a society to help them keep their culture alive. I feel like there should be more support provided to preserve their culture. Authors like Louise Erdrich provide insight about what it is like to be an American Indian living with the burdens of the past, present, and future. Though their struggles seem more than I could bear, I feel like the American Indian culture would flourish if nurtured and if more people took the time to understand their ways of life.

Works Cited

Beck, David. “The Myth of the Vanishing Race”. Edward S Curtis in Context, Feb 2001. Web. 19 April 2013. <http:memory.loc.gov/ammem/award98/ienhtml/essay2.html>

 “Living Conditions”. American Indian Relief Council, nd. Web. 20 April 2013. < http://www.nrcprograms.org/site/PageServer?pagename=airc_livingconditions>.

Erdrich, Louise. Love Medicine. New York: Bantam, 1989. Print.  

Joyce, Melissa. “Impacts of Assimilation”. Mount Holyoke Historical Atlas, 2006. Web. 20 April 2013. < https://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/rschwart/hatlas/mhc_widerworld    /cherokee/cfs_assimilation.html>.

Rajotte, Mary. “The Role of Storytelling in Native American Tribes”. Bright Hub Education, 7 Jan. 2012. Web. 19 April 2013. <http://www.brighthubeducation.com/social-studies-help/97047-importance-of-native-american-storytelling/>.

Reyhner, Jon. “Cultural Survival vs. Forced Assimilation: The Renewed War on Diversity”. Cultural Survival, 2 April 2010. Web. 19 April 2013. <http://www.culturalsurvival.org/    publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/united-states/cultural-survival-vs-forced-assimilation-rene>.

Williams, Timothy. “Higher Crime, Fewer Changes on Indian Land”. The New York Times, 20 Feb 2012. Web. 20 April 2013 < http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/21/us/on-indian-           reservations-higher-crime-and-fewer-prosecutions.html?pagewanted=all>.