LITR 4332: American Minority Literature
final exam 2008 sample answers

Copy of final exam

Essay on American Indian and Mexican American narratives

Victoria Ortiz--Topic 1 American Indian and Mexican American Narratives

Misconceptions and Alternatives

            With so many misconceptions on the definition of minority cultures and concepts clarification is needed on the characterization that places a culture or ethnic group under the minority category. A KR from 2007 help clarify what minority means this explanation,

Objective 1 states that the minority concept may be defined as ‘a power relationship modeled primarily by some ethnic groups’ historical relation to the dominant culture.’ A minority group is a collection of people who live in a society that has a structure set up to benefit another group of people. The group of people that this benefits is known as the dominant culture. In America this culture is seen in most cases as wealthy, white men. (KR 2007)

The point necessary to remember when discussing minority cultures is that it is not a subject or matter of race but the cultural experience of a group brought about by the “power relation” between the dominant culture and the minority culture.

            When defining minority objective one provides characteristics that can be identified in minority groups such as Native Americans and Mexican Americans. The hierarchal structure present between the dominate culture and the minority culture can be seen through the characteristics explain by objective one; which state that minorities are forced into “involuntary participation and continuing oppression” (1a) and, are “voiceless and choiceless” (1b) in comparison to the dominate culture.

            All of the characteristics listed above are fulfilled through experience by Native Americans. For Native Americans the involuntary participation and continuing oppression occurred when they were forced into reservations and they lost many family members in section one of American Indian Stories Zitkala-Sa’s mother describes the impact of the dominate culture,

She pointed to the hill where my uncle and my only sister lay buried. "There is what the paleface has done! Since then your father too has been buried in a hill nearer the rising sun. We were once very happy. But the paleface has stolen our lands and driven us hither. Having defrauded us of our land, the paleface forced us away.

The oppression continues when Zitkala-Sa goes to school and is forced to cut her hair and couldn’t fight the dominate culture,

Then I lost my spirit. Since the day I was taken from my mother I had suffered extreme indignities. People had stared at me. I had been tossed about in the air like a wooden puppet. And now my long hair was shingled like a coward's! In my anguish I moaned for my mother, but no one came to comfort me. Not a soul reasoned quietly with me, as my own mother used to do; for now I was only one of many little animals driven by a herder.” For Zitkala-Sa her identity, voice, and choice is taken from her when she is not given the choice to not cut her hair and they ignore her struggle against them.

Like all minority groups and cultures choice and voice are not allowed when being force into oppression by the dominate culture.

            Mexican Americans also fulfill the characteristics of objective one. Mexican American’s suffered similar exploitation and dispossession as American Indians having lost many of their lands and right in the Mexican War of 1846-48. Gabriel Marez from Rudulfo A. Anaya describes it as, “those were beautiful years, the Llano was still virgin, there was grass as high as the stirrups of a grown horse, there was rain—and then the tejano came and built his fences, the railroad came, the roads—it was like a bad wave of the ocean covering all the good” (54). Much like the Native Americans, Mexican Americans where not give choice or voice the removal of their lands or rights to roam the land as was custom to their heritage. For many Mexican Americans there is a loss of culture and language as English is the dominate speaking language of the US.

            As a result of the hierarchical structure of the dominant culture versus the minority culture the lack of opportunity available to minority cultures to achieve what is known as the American Dream, and the lack of voice and choice, minority narratives have risen as the alternative. For Native Americans the alterative narrative is about “Loss and Survival,” (5b) while the alternative narrative for the Mexican American is “The Ambivalent Minority” or third way (5c).

            The Native American alliterative narrative encompasses the characteristics that the American Dream of the dominate culture is the American Nightmare for the minority culture in that they have lost and continue to lose, that the they will continue to survive and will not die out. Examples of Native American alternative narratives can be followed in American Indian Stories and Love Medicine. In American Indian Stories the alternative narrative is seen with the survival of Native American Traditions and folktales, “When I could not wait any longer, I whispered in my mother's ear, ‘Ask them to tell an Iktomi story, mother.’…‘My little daughter is anxious to hear your legends.’”(Legends) In Love Medicine the narrative can be observed through the actions of Lulu when she fights to keep her house even when it is no longer there, “…Let’s just say that I refused to move one foot farther west.  I was very much intent to stay where I was.” (282). The Native American Narrative factors in the loss and setback that affect the culture and maintains the belief and determination of survival and eventual triumph allowing them to fight against the American Nightmare of oppression.

            The Mexican American alternative narrative of “The Ambivalent Minority” or third way encompasses the ambiguity that Mexican Americans may feel or exemplify mixed feelings about whether to assimilate or resist Examples of the Mexican American alternative narrative can be followed in The Story of the Lady of Guadalupe and Bless Me, Ultima. In religion ambiguity is notable as in The Story of the Lady of Guadalupe as RL puts it from Julie Mash’s Web highlight,

The Virgin of Guadalupe is Mexico’s patron saint.  However, her appearance is a syncretism of Aztec religion and Catholicism.  The figure, greatly resembling the Virgin Mary, has the skin and face of an Indian, which suggests the Mexican heritage of Aztecs.  At the same time, she is discovered by Juan Diego, who is Mexican.  This combines the populations of Mexico, the contemporary Mexican and the traditional Aztec, in worshipping in the vein of Catholicism.  More importantly, the adoption of this image symbolizes the acceptance of Catholicism.  This is voluntary rather than forced, and minorities typically deal in involuntary participation.  At the same time, this is not total submission, because the image of Mary has been adapted to the approval of Mexican and Indian culture.  As a result, there is a feeling of compromise, rather than force by the dominant culture.

Christina Holmes

The Plight of the Native American and the Mexican American

There is much to be said about the plight of Native American and Mexican American. Both have endured many hardships in trying to establish their place in the dominant culture. Unlike the immigrant who had a desire to leave his homeland in pursuit of a better life in America, Native and Mexican Americans were not given that opportunity. Rather they have involuntarily participated in the establishment of the United States through being forced to give up their beliefs and assimilate into a culture that is foreign to their own. In addition to involuntary participation they have struggled with exploitation of their culture, their land and their family ties. It is these struggles of loss that describe their plight and label them as minority ethnic cultures living the American nightmare rather than the American Dream. In an effort to pinpoint the extreme measures and differences in their culture that substantiate  these labels an overview and comprehensive comparison between the objectives of this course and the conditions observed in the classroom readings will be evaluated, in the hopes of understanding their survival.

The loss and survival that is exemplified by the Native American can be observed in the readings of Louise Erdrich’s, Love Medicine. In the novel we note that the Native American must register in order to receive a parcel of land,

“The land had been allotted to Grandpas’ mother, old Rushes Bear, who had married the original Kashpaw. When allotments were handed out…—Nector and Eli—had been old enough to register for their own”(18).

This statement confirms the Native Americans loss of land and it also shows their ability to survive. Rather than move away they accepted the parcel of land and continued to make efforts to struggle against the oppression and survive in the “New America.”  Other selections in the novel that confirms their ability to survive can be seen in the way they hold on to their traditions as was observed in the request made by Nanapush,

“so when my time comes, you and your mother should drag me off, wrap me up in quilts. Sing my songs and the bury me high in a tree, Lulu, where I can see my enemies approach in their government cars” (71).

Nanapush’s request to carry out his burial in accordance to “old customs” indicates his desire to hold on to and maintain traditions thus fighting against the loss of traditions. In addition, it also shows the distrust that the Native American has towards the institutions of the dominant culture (OBJ.4a).

One of the major scenes in the novel that truly exemplifies the Native Americans nightmare is observed with the treatment endured by Marie at the convent,

“I heard the water as it came, tipped from the spout, cooling as it fell but still scalding as it struck. I must have twitched beneath her foot, because she steadied me and the poker nudged beside my am as if to guide me” (52).

 This incident truly validates the nightmare for the Native American. Marie, being oppressed, in a place where she is suppose to be learning about God, but because of her ethnicity the nun threatens, torment and tortures her (OBJ.1a).

The Mexican American narrative differs somewhat from the Native American as their story is one of ambivalence; the indecision of whether or not they should fully assimilate into the dominant culture or remain separate. Because of their “mixed feelings” it is difficult to take a stand as is observed in Rudolph Anaya’s, Bless Me, Ultima.

In the novel we see Tony’s brothers as a prime example of the ambivalence that exist with the Mexican American narrative. Tony’s father would like his sons to stay close to home and take up the trade he is involved in, building the highway. However, of his three sons, two, Eugene and Leon,  do not want to stay,

“We have to go! We have to go!..We don’t want to work on the highway!” (71).

 On the other hand, Andrew decides to stay, and when Tony asks him why he did not leave with his brother replies,

“Ah, I got a job here, start today. So I figure I can do as well as they do up in Vegas” (73).

Eugene’s statement  regarding him and his brothers clearly indicates their desire to resemble the dominant cultures quest for a better life (OBJ.5c), which they believes can only be achieved if they leave the rural town their parents call home. Although Andrew discussed leaving with his brothers, his decision not to leave validates his ambivalence in seeking prosperity by fully assimilating into the dominant culture. He feels he can be just as successful remaining close to his culture.

Another important factor in considering the plight of the Mexican American is their disregard for social structures (OBJ.5) which is clearly a dominant culture attribute. This is evident in the story of, The Story of the Lady of Guadalupe in which Juan Diego put more importance in his obligations to his family than to those of the Virgin Mary. Having been asked to carry out a certain task he attempts, but when it interferes with the request of his uncle he declines to follow through,

Know that a servant of yours is very sick, my uncle. He has contracted the plague, and is near death. I am hurrying to your house in Mexico to call one of your priests, beloved by our Lord, to hear his confession and absolve him, because, since we were born, we came to guard the work of our death. But if I go, I shall return here soon, so I may go to deliver your message. Lady and my Child, forgive me, be patient with me for the time being. I will not deceive you. Tomorrow I will come in all haste (Web Page).

Juan Diego’s statement reflects the minorities view on social structure and the importance of family (OBJ4a). He is not concerned with what is politically correct as would be observed by the dominant culture, but his concern lies with the condition and request of his uncle. This is a true characteristic of the minority culture- family first.

Another observance that differentiates the minority narrative from the immigrant narrative is the importance of the elderly, (OBJ.4a), which can be seen in the relationship that is shared with Tony’s family and Ultima. Although, she is not a true relative, she is an elder and that makes her just like family. She moves in with Tony’s family and is treated with the utmost respect and reverence;

“She tended me at the birth of my sons…”Gabriel, we cannot let her live her last days in loneliness” (3).

Here we can identify the reverence that Tony’s mom has for Ultima. She is an elder and must be looked after. This type of attitude towards elders is also what signifies the Mexican American as a minority culture.

It is a travesty, throughout history the Native Americans and the Mexican Americans have had to endure such horrendous issues; loss of family, land, and culture to survive in America. However, it is through these stories that we are able to see the perseverance that both the Native American and the Mexican American have exhibited in order to maintain their heritage. Their stories differ from those of the immigrant, yet they are filled with the same hope and determination of the immigrant. The difference lies within the events of their lives. Theirs was one of overcoming obstacles, dealing with rejection, being coerced into a culture that regarded them as second rate citizens. These difficulties are the foundation of Native American and Mexican American and the reason why they are labeled minority ethnic cultures.

Ben Hamley

Exploitation and Redemption

Both Mexican Americans and Native Americans share in the definition of American minority cultures.  The single uniting factor between these two ethnic groups is that they were not willing participants in their inclusion into the United States.  Immigrants are people who have set out with the intention of finding a better life for themselves in America, a land in which they see great opportunity.  This opportunity frequently does not exist for minority cultures, as they are forcibly included and must seemingly choose between a loss of their culture and an exclusion from the rest of mainstream society.

            This is stated most clearly in objective 1, that both Native Americans and Mexican Americans did not choose to come to America or join its dominant culture.  Native Americans inhabited this land long before Europeans ever set foot upon these shores.  Mexican Americans lived in what is now New Mexico, Texas, California and other states that were ceded by Mexico after the Mexican-American war. 

            The attitudes that result from this history of loss and exploitation are voiced in a number of the pieces we read this semester.  It is remarked by Zitkala-sa in American Indian Stories that she felt “like a slender tree, uprooted--now a cold bare pole I seemed to be planted in a strange earth”(97).  She had been planted in the land that she grew up in, and when the white man came, she felt that she had been stripped of her livelihood and placed in an unfamiliar and hostile soil.

            Even more poignant are the remembrances in Bless Me Ultima that recall the loss of land that had been ranching land for the Mexicans that lived there.  “Then the railroad came.  The barbed wire came.  The songs, the corridos became sad and the meeting of people from Texas with my forefathers was full of blood, murder, and tragedy.  The people were uprooted”(125).  The same emotion of being uprooted as in Zitkala-sa is repeated. 

            Mexican and Native Americans are forced to develop their own narratives and culture histories in order to maintain their own identity.  The confusion seems to exist between the feeling that there is a need to assimilate to be accepted into the mainstream culture, while most minorities also wish to keep their own cultural identity.  This is where stories such as the Virgin of Guadalupe come into play.  The Virgin of Guadalupe story combines elements from local Indian culture with a message that is distinctly Catholic.  There is an attempt to bring Catholicism and native Indian culture closer together in order to straddle both the original beliefs and the new religion introduced. 

            All in all, both Mexican American and Native American minority groups struggle to find their identity between modern mainstream culture and cultural history.  They are defined as minority by their unwilling inclusion into the American people.   

Catherine Louvier

One Color, Two Minorities

American Indians and Mexican–Americans confront different obstacles as minority populations in the United States. People with tribal ties to the US Indian nations come from cultures defeated by American frontiersman who plundered and stole ancestral homelands. Mexican-Americans are a people of mixed ethnicity with both indigenous and Spanish ancestry who were also victims of American manifest destiny. However, while American Indians have an unequivocal place within the minority experience of the dominant culture, the proximity of the border and a choice of motivations for the presence of Mexican-Americans in the US leave the second group with an ambivalent place in the delineation between immigrant and minority cultures. The conflicting experiences of the two groups lay the foundation for different styles of cultural narratives in literature.

In order to settle the already-populated continent, British colonizers had to take land from the native population. Therefore, as rivals for property and a conquered people, American Indians were considered enemies of the British from the start. After gaining their own independence, American settlers and soldiers swept across the continent, slaughtering or subduing the many Native American nations with a policy akin to genocide. Legislators resolved the “Indian problem” to their own satisfaction by allotting the Indians land (mostly barren, worthless land) and confining them to reservations. Therefore, because they were conquered and forced to function within the parameters set by the dominant society through no choice of their own, American Indians fall within the parameters of a minority culture in Objective 1a.

Treated as a “foreign” people on their own soil, the people of Native American nations were not given the choice of assimilation or resistance when the American dream swept across their lands in the hands of others. Membership in the developing American culture was never an option, because American conquest stripped them of the choice to assimilate or resist described in Objective 3.  Even the attempts to educate the children from reservations did not aim for assimilation in American society, but for annihilation of the Indian way of life. As shown in American Indian Stories, indoctrination was used as an opportunity to force Indian children into submission and separate them from remnants of the tribal traditions practiced by their parents. The idea that the educated American Indian children would ever racially mix with the US citizens was unlikely. In the book, this is made clear when the main character becomes educated in the American system and finds a great deal of success, but is still heckled and ridiculed when she out-performs white students in her presentation. Her attempt to join in the American Dream by pursuing the education the US government offers is met with walls of bigotry.  

People hailing from the sub-standard conditions on reservations do not look like that romanticized picture glamorized in books and films. Members of the dominant culture of today take an apologetic attitude toward the injustices their ancestors inflicted upon the Native American population and express the desire to atone for those wrongs. Like Dr. White said in class, “Bubbas love Indians.” However, these people honor an idealized concept of the American Indian, when in reality individuals are destined to fall short of the image of the noble savage glamorized in books and films. The American Indian narrative offers a more realistic view. A reflection of the “Loss and Survival” pattern in Objective 5a, Love Medicine paints a picture of the unique culture that retains vestiges of tradition in spite of pressure from the dominant culture to conform.  

Mexican-Americans in the southwestern United States’ territories were also part of a conquered people and as such faces barriers that warrant their inclusion in the definition of minority as stated in objective 1a. As with the American Indians, the Mexican populations of the territory north of the Rio Grande were considered enemies. While they did not have the same ancestral claim to the land as the Indians, they were outcasts. These people were either losers in a war between Texas and Mexico or spoils of a war between Mexico and the US. While Mexican-Americans of the Southwest United States spoke a language of Europe, it was the Spanish of the Catholic conquistadores, not the English of the US. In addition, because of the proliferation of racial blending in the Spanish Americas, the people of Mexican descent had an appearance closer to that of Native Americans than to the northern European immigrant culture of the US. The xenophobic Anglo-Protestants of the US would never accept people as different in color, language, and religion as Mexican-Americans. Such different people would remain perpetually suspect.

Religion plays a major role in the long-standing separation of the Mexican-American culture and the dominant culture. Mexican-Americans embrace Christianity, but the Christianity of the Catholic Church, the traditional nemesis of the protestant denominations of the US. European wars pitted Protestant nations against Catholic nations since the time of Martin Luther and many of the original colonists were escaping religious persecution (Pilgrims, Puritans), often inflicted by the Catholic Church. Part of the reason Bless Me Ultima seems so foreign to most American readers is the adherence of the characters to the Catholic belief system. It is interesting that this form of Catholicism is a unique, syncretic form born of the collision between Native Mexican people and Catholic Spaniards. In other words, the conflict between the old Indian ways of Ultima and the “new” Catholicism of the priests in Bless Me Ultima is a conflict between two forces unique to Mexican traditions. Also, Tony’s struggle to align his mother’s devotion to the Virgin of Guadalupe with Cico’s reverence for the Golden Carp parallels the struggle of the mestizo Juan Diego to balance indigenous religion with Catholic teaching that underlies The Story of the Lady of Guadalupe. 

Tony’s interior conflict shows another element of the narrative unique to the Mexican-American culture in terms of racial perception. While there is color bigotry among the people of Mexico, race relations in the Spanish Americas were conceived of very differently than they were in the US (or Texas). There was no policy of containment (genocide) and there was a lot more mingling between the Spanish and Native people, so racial bigotry was not quite so well-delineated. Because the conquistadores did not bring wives or daughters with them, children of the men who conquered the Aztec empire were half Native American (mestizos). Tony’s parents in Bless me Ultima represent the union of these opposing cultures. One descends from Conquistadores and the other descends from indigenous farmers. However, the antagonism between the two halves of Tony’s family is not based on race, but on tradition. Nevertheless, in the world of the dominant US culture, people do not recognize the difference between Luna and Marez but see the families only in terms of the color code mentioned in Objective1d. In the US, if their color is the same, then they are the same.

            The place of Mexican-Americans as ambivalent with respect to the dominant culture shows up most noticeably in the experiences of Tony’s brothers and in Tony’s experiences in school. Participation in the armed forces shows his brother’s identities as Americans and gives evidence of assimilation. Likewise, their need to move from their home to cities less connected to the Mexican-American community shows a tendency to become part of the dominant culture. However, life in New Mexico seems indistinguishable from life on the other side of the border. Tony does not speak English until he goes to school and his mother never learns it. The English speaking children at school are Protestant and remain separate from the Mexican-American boys. Additionally these Protestant, English-speaking children behave as though they are superior to the Hispanic group to which Tony belongs. These situations show the family’s interior conflict between willing participation in the American experience and their assigned status as a cultural minority. It also shows how the Mexican-American people teeter between involuntary participation described in Objective 1a and the voluntary participation of an American immigrant culture.