LITR 4332 American Minority Literature UHCL 2001 sample student research project

LITR 4332: American Minority Literature

Sample Student Research Project 2001

Shellie Garza

16 November 2001

The American Indian and Children’s Literature in Education

(Journal Project)

Introduction

This journal will explore Indians as they appear in mainstream children’s literature. Stereotypes and the root of these stereotypes will be examined. Criticism by Indians of the misrepresentation of Indians in children’s literature will be included. I will present two American Indian authors and their books that are in the mainstream of children’s literature. Finally, I will present a section on teaching young children about Native Americans. I hope you find this journal interesting and informative.

Imagine if 98 percent of books about slavery were written by American whites, if 98 percent of books about the Holocaust were written by Germans, if 98 percent of books about whatever group you belong to were written by the group that historically (and perhaps even today) has been your biggest opposition in the struggle for equality. Would that mean that the books would be insensitive? Not necessarily. Most of today's Germans are mortified by the Holocaust. Most whites feel that slavery was wrong. Progress has been made on many fronts.

But wouldn't young readers be really missing out if they didn't have books by survivors and descendants? Aren't the voices of their writers pertinent and poignant? Should they be essentially crowded out of writing about their own experiences?

Are Native Americans any different? (Smith, para. 9-12)

I first became interested in American Indian authors of children’s literature after reading American Indian Stories by Zitkala-Sa. Zitkala-Sa was a Sioux Indian who told stories in the written tradition. Zitkala-Sa shared her life experiences through works of literature.

Our class has talked a lot about oral tradition and written tradition. In a time when the Indians were being forced out of their reservations, they had no voice with the white man. They did, however, have a voice to their children. They shared their stories in the oral tradition. The stories were told so that the children would never forget their families, their heritage, and the travesties imposed against the honor of the Indian civilizations.

The oral stories were eventually accompanied by written stories because the children of the reservations were learning to read and write. Power to the children! The American Indian children were becoming empowered. Zitkala-Sa was one such child. She grew up to be first American Indian woman to write her own story with no aid from an editor, interpreter, or an ethnographer (Fisher, p. vi).

In American Indian Stories, a compilation of stories written by Zitkala-Sa, she writes of her life experiences growing up as an American Indian. She shares memories of her childhood and other stories of her past. She was a girl and a woman in the world of the white man. She writes of her childhood and life on the reservation. She painfully tells how it felt to be an Indian during the upheaval of her civilization. The reader knows she’s not telling how it might have felt, she’s telling the reader about the Indian experience from an Indian’s perspective.

Over the years, the white man has dominated and capitalized off of the Indians by writing about them in literature. There are two well-known stories about Indians that the public has embraced, The Indian in the Cupboard and the movie, Pocahantas. Both are controversial and according to research, both are frowned upon by most Indian groups. These two works will be examined in more detail in a section of this journal specifically addressing the two works.

Indians in Mainstream Children’s Literature

There are numerous sources on Indians in children’s literature that share a similar story. It is told a little different each time, but the jest of it goes like this: A teacher approaches her students with enthusiasm as she tells them they are going to be learning about the American Indians. A child shouts out, "There aren’t anymore Indians! We killed them all" (Hurst, para. 1). Some children believe that Indians no longer exist. Some children only know of Indians through Thanksgiving and Columbus Day.

Common phrases such as, "don’t be an Indian giver," "sit Indian style," and "playing cowboys and Indians, " are phrases resulting in stereotyping that has been adapted by the dominant culture (Kaupp, para. 2). Where do they come from? They come from television and movies. Where do these stereotypes come from? They come from lack of knowledge about American Indians. They come from the generalizations about Indians in history and literature.

In literature, well-known Indian groups are shown while others are not. According to Debbie Reese, author of Stories about Contemporary Native Americans in Books for Preschool and Kindergarten, "there are 500 different groups of Indians still remaining in the United States" (Reese, para. 1).

It should be becoming apparent that there are problems with representation of American Indians in literature. There are a lot of generalizations, misrepresentations or no representation at all. Let’s explore a little more. Let’s examine this enormously popular book, The Indian in the Cupboard.

The Indian in the Cupboard by Lynne Reid Banks was published in 1982. The story is centered around a little boy that receives a cupboard and a toy Indian for his birthday. He is not that interested in either gift, so he places the toy Indian in the cupboard. To his surprise, the toy magically comes to life as a tiny Indian named Little Bear.

The Indian in the Cupboard is popular with kids. Families have enjoyed the movie that was produced based on the book. The book was and is so popular that there two sequels in the making. The American Indian people, on the otherhand, do not like this book.

The book sold more than 3,000,000 copies in hardcover and almost 1.5 million in paper since its publication. No book by any Indian writer on any subject for any age group approaches these sales figures!" "Yet, Bank’s books (and 2 sequels) have been heavily criticized by literary competent Native teachers, parents and librarians, all familiar with children’s literature as presenting racism discretely, while teaching the young white boy (reader identification character) how to behave as a good paternalistic colonial ruler over "dolls" who despite their limitations and savagery, are alive and have feelings. ..

(Geiss, para. 4).

One of the main problems the Indians have with the story is that the Indian is a thing; he is a toy. The writer incorrectly presents the Indian character as an Iroquois warrior. According to the native authors of Through Indian Eyes: The Native Experience in Books for Children, "Although the little ‘Indian’ is called Iroquois, no attempt has been made in text or illustration to have him look or behave appropriately. For example, he is dressed as a Plains Indian and is given a tipi and a horse" (Geiss, para. 5). Another misrepresentation with the story is that in the movie version of the book, the Indian only grunts and responds in partial sentences (para. 2). The worst thing about the story in the eyes of the American Indians is that the Indian is being manipulated by a more powerful white, in this case, a more powerful white child (para. 2). The Indian in the Cupboard is just one example of Indians in mainstream children’s literature. The legend of Pocahontas is another entity to examine.

A legend that is passed on to elementary aged students is the legend of Pocahontas. Pocahontas was a member of the Powhatan nation, and the legend is that she saved the life of John Smith, an English colonist. On the other hand, according to the Powhatan Nation, there is a distortion of history (Horse, para. 2). There is, of course, much more to the true story of Pocahontas. Pocahontas did actually exist, but the legend is what is presented to children via children’s books and movies.

Pocahontas was said to be a caring and compassionate little girl that made sure colonists received food from the Indians. Many teachers teach social skills with the story of Pocahantas from the perspective of her caring and sharing attributes. It’s a "good thing" in the eyes of the educator to teach about sharing and caring and that is an underlying theme when students learn about Pocahontas.

Disney Productions produced a movie about Pocahontas that caused an uproar by the Powhatan Nation. Roy Disney, of Disney Productions, claims the film is "responsible, accurate, and respectful" (Horse, para. 1).

Indian groups are critical of the movie, Pocahontas, however, discussions groups suggest that the movie should not be taken as a serious historical source. In e-mail discussions on H-Net, it is suggested that good things can be taken from the movie, such as the belief that one person can make a difference, as Pocahontas made a difference (H-Net). According to Thomas Schumacher, senior vice president of Feature Animation for Disney said, "the film is fundamentally about racism and intolerance and we hope that people will gain a greater understanding of themselves and of the world around them. It’s also about having respect for each other’s cultures" (Edgerton, para. 1).

An interesting summarization of Indian’s feelings about portrayals in literature was found in my research: "Indians have a difficult time separating the reality of their lives as human beings from the fantasy expected of them by the rest of America" (Kaup, para. 12). Let’s continue to examine the portrayal of Indians in mainstream children’s literature by examining contemporary American Indian literature.

Contemporary American Indian Literature

Jingle Dancer is a picture storybook about a young girl of Muscogee (Creek) and Ojibe (Chippewa) descent, wanting to following in the footsteps of her grandmother and dance a traditional jingle dance she has seen her grandmother dance. The tradition of the jingle dance is explained in the book. (Smith, "Jingle Dancer"). Extensive research resulted in only rave reviews about this book. Sounds like a winner!

Rain Is Not My Indian Name is a young adults novel by Cynthia Leitich Smith. It is a good book, but in a different way. The main character is a 14 year old girl of Indian descent. She is Creek-Cherokee/Scots-Irish on her mother's side and Irish German-Ojibway on her father's side. Here are a couple of verses from the book. "Rain is not my Indian name, not the way people think of Indian names. But I am an Indian, and it is the name my parents gave me" (Remmick, para. 1).

The format of this book is fantastic. There are maps and journals. The pictures are good and the story is a bevy of emotion. There is a website,

, specifically to enhance the reader’s experience. I have no doubt that this book will continue to win the hearts of a lot of young readers.

Where Did you Get Your Moccasins? by Bernelda Wheeler is another book that is a good selection for young readers. One great thing about this book is that it is set in the present-day setting. The following information is taken from "Stories about Contemporary Native American to be Read - aloud in Preschool and Kindergarten Classrooms": The kids in the story are at school and they are participating in show-and-tell. He has brought his moccasins that his "Kookum" has made for him and he even tells them that some of the beads were purchased "at the store" There are no pictures of tipis and Indian reservations; Grandma and Grandpa live in an apartment. This book is targeted at Pre-K to Kindergarten (Reese, para. 2). It is a wonderful picture book that demonstrates to young children how to appreciate their differences.

Contemporary American Indians Authors

Cynthia Leitich Smith is a contemporary American Indian author. She is an enrolled member of the Muscogee-Creek Nation (Smith, para. 4). Her name is quickly becoming recognized in the world of children’s and young adults’ literature. She is winning one writer’s honor after another. Some of her awards include but are not limited to: Notable Children's Trade Book in the Field of Social Studies and a Selector's Choice for 2001; Named to the 2001 2 x 2 Reading List of twenty books recommended for children ages two through second grade by the Texas Library Association; One of five finalists for the children's/YA division of the Oklahoma Book Award; Runner-up for the Storyteller Award from the Western Writers Association; The 2001 Writers of the Year in Children's Prose . She did not, however, start out writing children’s books.

Smith’s background is in journalism, public relations, and law

(Smith, para. 4). According to Cynthia L. Smith, her mother takes the credit for her daughter’s writing career as it was her mother whom encouraged her to write children’s books. Smith said writing came naturally but she was apprehensive about writing children’s books. She was only in her early twenties and in her mind, writing children’s book was like a pull back to her childhood. At this time of her life, she was trying to distance herself from childhood (Smith, para. 1).

Cynthia Leitich Smith, author of Jingle Dancer and Rain is Not My Indian Name is very accessible to her readers. She has an award winning web site that is user friendly and informative. I e-mailed her with three specific questions in the hope that I would get a response, and I did! The questions and responses appear just as they were submitted to author and received by me.

I was interested to know just exactly how much "Indian" Cynthia Leitich Smith was and if her stories were derived from oral stories or written stories that have been passed down to her. I found the story of Jingle Dancer to be very interesting and was interested to know if in fact, her grandmother did pass that tradition down. My question was: "Where do you get your ideas for your stories?"

My ideas come from gnawing questions, my daily life, and those around me. JINGLE DANCER was in some way a reaction to the media images of powwows. Native girls are often shown in regalia, but there’s no context, no explanation of the meaning of the dance and event. We don’t see where the regalia comes from or the relationships between strong women that characterize Indian communities. So, in some ways, JINGLE DANCER was an antidote. More specific characters were inspired by people I love. For example, Grandma Wolfe and Great-aunt Sis are very much like elders of my family. Cousin Elizabeth has much in common with the young lawyer I once was. RAIN IS NOT MY INDIAN NAME was inspired in part by my witnessing the death of a peer when I was 15 years old and written at a time when my much-beloved grandfather was dying of cancer.

There is a more universal theme, presented in an indigenous culture context, asking about the long, hard work of healing after loss. (Smith, email)

I found it interesting that Cynthia L. Smith did not come right out and say her grandmother was a source for Jingle Dancer. I am going to also assume that Cynthia L. Smith’s descendants participated in the ritual of the Jingle Dance as opposed to powwows.

I was very interested to know if any of her stories were based on oral stories that were told to her. That question was important to me because all semester in Minority Literature we have discussed the oral tradition and the written tradition. My question was: "Are your stories based on any oral stories that were told to you?"

All of my books so far are contemporary and realistic stories rather than retellings of traditional stories. However, JINGLE DANCER does mention the Mvskoke story of Bat, which was told to me as a child, and certainly the style of my writing is influenced by the rhythm and music of oral storytelling. (Smith, email)

I was disappointed in this response primarily because I am having a hard time buying into Cynthia Leitich Smith as a genuine American Indian author. There was some salvation at the end of the answer when she said she did retell an oral story that was told to her as a child.

My final question was the most important question I wanted to ask. In as much as I have read, Cynthia Leitich has done her research, but why does she, or does she think she is more qualified to write about the American Indian that a white author. My question was: "Do you think you are more qualified to write about the American Indian than say, a white author?"

I think whether I am more qualified depends greatly on the Indian and the white author. I am a Muscogee woman who writes about characters of her own tribe, others she’s descended from, and those with which she has great personal familiarity. On the other hand, I’m no more qualified to write a story about, say, a Hopi girl—outside my own traditions—than someone who’d lived his entire life in China. A white author who’d been adopted into a Hopi family and grew up in that culture would certainly have greater insights. It’s true that anyone can learn enough to write accurately and respectfully about characters from any other culture, but the burden to do so is significantly higher than most people realize.

If I were committed to telling a Hopi story, that to my way of thinking would no doubt require my relocating to that community, studying with great effort and respect, and before embarking on a tale, asking the appropriate permissions and being completely willing to step away from those subtopics deemed outside the realm of literary appropriateness. I have enough t write about without mining outside my own backyard.

But am I more qualified to write about a mixed blood Muscogee woman than a white woman? Well, I’d certainly have one serious head start on the research and accompanying social concerns. (Smith, email)

I think this response is interesting because Smith is almost trying to justify heritage. The response is obviously sincere because in the first line of the response she says that it depends on the Indian author and the white author. Smith may be the type of person that has delved into her heritage with open arms. I am somewhat skeptical that she has been exposed to many real-life Indian experiences or oral stories that have been shared with her that actually appear in her books.

(The preceding information was received via email on 10/28/01 @9:54 P.M. from http://www.cynthialeitichsmith.com/.)

Bernelda Wheeler is another contemporary American Indian author. She is not new to the profession. She was born in 1937 and has been writing for many years. One of her more popular books is Where Did you Get Your Moccasins?. Another book worth checking out is entitled, I Can’t Have Bannock, but the Beaver Has a Dam.

There is virtually little written about Wheeler personally, however, she is a member of the Metis tribe of Winnipeg, Canada. According to Dr. Craig White, Associate Professor of Literature and Humanities and The University of Houston-Clear Lake, "maybe the category of ‘American Indians’ refers more broadly to the continent" (White email). "Metis Metis, «may TEES or may TEE,» refers to people of mixed white and American Indian ancestry. Metis culture developed primarily in the Red River Colony (in present-day Manitoba) in the 1800's. The word metis comes from an old French word that meant mixed" (J. M. Burnsted).

Teaching Young Children About Native Americans

Children’s exposure to literature over the years has been limited. According to Debbie Reese, author of Teaching Young Children about Native Americans, Eric Digest, there are four things to avoid when teaching about Native American Indians: avoid using over-generalized books, avoid the "tourist" curriculum, avoid presenting sacred activities in trivial ways, and avoid introducing the topic of Native Americans on Columbus Day or Thanksgiving (Reese, "Practices to Avoid"). These topics are elaborated on in the following four paragraphs.

An educator should avoid using over-generalized "anything" in his/her classroom. This would include but not be limited to books, curriculum guides and/or lesson plans. Teaching a unit or reading a book about Native American Indians is too broad. When looking for appropriate material, try to find books that focus on a single tribe ("Practices to Avoid"). The "tourist curriculum" is another strategy to avoid.

The "tourist curriculum" is a curriculum that teaches in isolated units. The tourist curriculum is not an integrated curriculum, and tends to focus on celebrations and seasonal holidays and not the daily lives of the Indians. Cinco-de-Mayo is a good example of the tourist curriculum. If a teacher thinks she has covered multicultural studies by one day of celebration, that is a disservice to the students and their opportunity to enjoy integration of Mexican culture throughout the year ("Practices to Avoid").

The third practice to avoid in the classroom is presenting sacred activities in trivial ways. Every kindergartner has made an Indian vest and headbands with feathers. Feathers are religious articles for some tribes and this does tend to trivialize the significance of the feathers ("Practices to Avoid"). This practice makes me think of my daughter’s first grade school year when she came home in the paper bag fringed vest and headband with feathers. I think many teachers continue this activity not realizing that they might be trivializing something sacred to the Indians.

Finally, it is absolutely imperative to avoid introducing Indians on Thanksgiving or Columbus Day. This practice seems to make Indians a thing of the past and some children do believe that Indians are a thing of the past ("Practices to Avoid"). As presented throughout this journal, Indians are alive and well across America.

Conclusion

This journal explored American Indian children’s literature as it appears in mainstream children’s literature. Stereotypes and the root of these stereotypes were examined. Criticism by Indians of the misrepresentation of Indians in children’s literature were included. I presented two American Indian authors and their books that are in the mainstream of children’s literature. Finally, I presented a section on teaching young children about Native Americans.

I have definitely become aware of the sensitivities that the American Indians experience on a daily basis. Just this week I went to a school and watched the lines of children walking to the cafeteria wearing their Indian headbands. I also had to take pause when I thought about how my own children might have felt had they heard a rendition of "Ten Little Mexicans."

I am of the opinion that if students are going to be educated in the classroom about Indians, there is going to have to be some compromise. The solution to this problem is going to be a long process of baby steps. I cannot see how all the generalizations are going to be stopped anytime soon. There is representation of Indians in mainstream children’s literature, but it is not easy trying to find the books that are politically correct with all parties concerned.

Teachers should not teach their students about Indians by preparing lesson plans that include making the headbands and vests. It seems like an insignificant idea; however, to a child, creating the headbands and vests are building blocks to stereotyping. How many decades of kids have performed this activity? It’s a baby step. Many teachers are trying to teach a history that is based on generalizations and stereotypes, and they, the teachers, are as ignorant as everybody else. That is by no direct fault of their own in most instances; it’s just the way it’s always been done.

What a good teacher should be doing is teaching about all ethnic groups throughout the year. This does not mean single out specific groups. As a future teacher, to me, this means finding people of all ethnic groups to bring into my classroom to talk about their histories and their cultures. I think the past is important, but the present and the future is also important in the eyes and the minds of very young children. If they meet an American Indian that lives in the apartment down the street and is dressed like everybody else, that is what that child will internalize. Yes, I would encourage the students to listen to the stories and look for the differences and similarities in all the ethnic groups and cultures we learn about. I want to encourage my students to respect the differences, but try and be as informed as possible as to what the true differences are.

The information on American Indians and American Indian children’s literature was extensive. I would go so far as to say it was almost overwhelming. There are so many sensitive areas, so many points of view, and so much history to overcome and/or try and undo. The history I am referring to may or may not be accurate. I could see where a teacher might be overwhelmed at the task before her. There is no doubt, however, that a good teacher should navigate her way through all the layers of information to try and seek some truth. Truth can be found in books, and my hope was to find some truth in American Indian children’s literature. I think I accomplished some truth. I hope you enjoyed the journal.

Works Cited for Indians in Children’s Literature

Banks, Lynne Reid, The Indian in the Cupboard. N.Y.: Doubleday, 1980.

Edgerton, Gary; Jackson, Kathy Merlock. "Redesigning Pocahontas: Disney, the 'White man's Indian', and the Marketing of Dreams" Journal of Popular Film and Television 1996, 12 November 2000 http://www.lions.odu.edu/~thavens/comm360/pocahontas.html

Fisher, Dexter. Foreword. American Indian Stories. By Zitkala-Sa. Nebraska:

University of Nebraska Press, 1985.

Geis, Paula. "Middle School (9-14) Books." Review, Middle, Indian in the

Cupboard, Lynne Reid Banks." 20 May (1996) 3 November 2001.

. Horse, Chief Crazy. "The Pocahontas Myth." Rankokus Indian Reservation

webpage. (2001) 02 November 2001 http://www.powhatan.org/pocc.html.

Hurst, Carol. "Native Americans." Carol Hurst’s Children’s Literature Site.

29 October 2001 http://www.carolhurst.com/subects/nativeamericans.html.

J. M. Bumsted, "Metis," Discovery Channel School, original content provided by

World Book Online, http://www.discoveryschool.com/homeworkhelp/worldbook/atozhistory/m/358480.html, 15 November 2001.

Kaupp, Burnett, and Wilson. "A Critical Bibliography on North American Indians for

K-12." Anthropology Outreach Office at the Smithsonian Institution.