"It's the hope of slaves sitting around a
fire singing freedom songs; the hope of immigrants
setting out for distant shores; the hope of a young
naval lieutenant bravely patrolling the Mekong Delta; the
hope of a millworker's son who dares to defy the odds;
the hope of a skinny kid with a funny name who
believes that America has a place for him, too.
"Hope--hope in the face of difficulty. Hope in the face of
uncertainty. The audacity of hope!"
(Barack Obama, "The Audacity of Hope," July 27, 2004)
American Renaissance & American Romanticism:
Whitman Style Sheet
Whitman is widely celebrated as "America's greatest poet." Such "greatness" is neither exclusive nor comprehensive, as the work of other American poets--Dickinson, Stevens, Eliot, Frost, Plath, Lowell--may be finer, subtler, and more learned.
Whitman's greatness stands on a few facts of literary history:
Whitman enjoyed a highly productive and extended career, compared to many poets. He wrote (and rewrote) a vast number of poems of varying quality.
Whitman is the first great poet to write extensively in "free verse." His development of this style advanced its development among most major poets since.
He expanded the subject matter of poetry
These changes in style and subject relate poetry to common life, though the people rarely admire Whitman as much as the educated elites.
Whitman's work sometimes has a wince-factor that puts off readers, but like other other great authors, the longer you know him, the more you admire.
Teaching Whitman
Like Emerson, Whitman so exceeds every category and offers so many radiating lines of thought, that controlling or guiding discussion may be futile. As with Emerson, some students will be inspired--"I never liked poetry, but I liked this." (On the other hand, some students who already like poetry will find Whitman crude and offensive.
What do you already know about Whitman?
Whitman as "revolutionary" poet.
Readers today find his style of poetry familiar--wide-open in terms of style and subject matter
But in the mid-1800s Whitman was a revolutionary--no one had written poetry like his before
"free verse" instead of structured, rhymed, parsed lines
poetry not just about pretty, heroic, or uplifting subjects, but poetry about intimacies and complexities of personal and cultural life
Essential Terms and Concepts
Free verse frees subject matter.
Whitman's experiments in free verse complement his experiments in subject matter.
Stylistic
Free verse poetry is never completely free of poetic conventions: figures of speech (esp. metaphor), alliteration and assonance, occasional or interior rhymes
Whitman's free verse:
The long line--sometimes associated with a unit of breath or speech; promotes inclusiveness
Parallelism or anaphora--repetitions from one line to the next, often the opening word(s)--anaphora
Catalog--lists or pageants of items or figures, derived from epic poetry
Subject matter
Shifting relations between self and other, soul and nature, individual and masses
Identification and inclusiveness
Mystical transcendence and absorption
Sexual release and exchange
Lifestyle
Development of urban lifestyle > Bohemian underworld, gay subculture
Poetic career as courageous priesthood
Changes style of poetry--instead of writing traditional poetic forms like sonnets and ballads, Whitman is the first major poet to write "free verse"--i. e., poetry without regular rhyme or fixed numbers of accents per line
free verse is not just broken-up prose
doesn't use regular rhyme and meter, but continues to use other rhetorical and poetic devices to heighten intensity and meaning of language
standard: metaphors, other figures of speech, alliteration and assonance
Whitman's most identifiable free verse techniques:
no rhyme or
standard meter
"the long line"--breath + inclusive
parallelism or anaphora
catalog
Free Verse: verse in which the metre and line length vary, and in which there is no discernible pattern in the use of rhyme. (Virtual Classroom)
(Glossary of Poetic Terms)
- FREE VERSE
- A fluid form
which conforms to no set rules of traditional versification.
The free in free verse refers to the freedom from fixed patterns of meter
and rhyme, but
writers of free verse employ familiar poetic devices such as assonance,
alliteration,
imagery, caesura,
figures of
speech etc., and their rhythmic
effects are dependent on the syllabic cadences
emerging from the context. The term is often used in its French language
form, vers libre. Walt Whitman's "By
the Bivouac's Fitful Flame," is an example of a poem written in
free verse.
Sidelight: Although as
ancient as Anglo-Saxon verse, free verse was first employed
"officially" by French poets of the Symbolist
movement and became the prevailing poetic form at the climax of Romanticism.
In the 20th century it was the chosen medium of the Imagists
and was widely adopted by American and English poets.
Sidelight: One of the
characteristics that distinguish free verse from rhythmical prose
is that free verse has line breaks which divide the content into uneven
rhythmical units. The liberation from metrical regularity allows the poet
to select line breaks appropriate to the intended sense of the text, as
well as to shape the white space on the page for visual
effect.
Sidelight: Free verse
enjoys a greater potential for visual arrangement than is possible in
metrical verse. Free verse poets can structure the relationships between
white space and textual elements to indicate pause, distance, silence,
emotion, and other effects.
Sidelight: Poorly written
free verse can be viewed simply as prose with arbitrary line breaks.
Well-written free verse can approach a proximity to the representation of
living experience.
Question or problem: What does Whitman do to maintain his free verse as poetry and not just broken-up prose?
Parallelism
Parallelism
From A Handbook to Literature. Ed. C. Hugh
Holman, 3rd edn. Indianapolis: Odyssey, 1972.
A structural arrangement of parts of a sentence,
sentences, paragraphs, and larger units of composition by which one element of
equal importance with another is similarly developed and phrased. The principle
of parallelism simply dictates that coordinate ideas should have coordinate
presentation. Within a sentence, for instance, where several elements of equal
importance are to be expressed, if one element is cast in a relative clause the
others should be expressed in relative clauses. Conversely, of course, the
principle of parallelism demands that unequal elements should not be
expressed in similar constructions. Practiced writers are not likely to attempt,
for example, the comparison of positive and negative statements, of inverted and
uninverted constructions, of dependent and independent clauses. And, for an
example of simple parallelism, the sentence immediately above may serve. Parallelism
is characteristic of Oriental poetry, being notably present in the Psalms,
as in
The Heavens declare the glory of
God;
And the firmament sheweth his
handywork.
It is also characteristic of the songs and chants of
the American Indians. Parallelism seems to be the controlling principle
of the poetry of Walt Whitman. . . .
From The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and
Poetics. Ed. Alex Preminger. Princeton UP, 1975.
Parallelism [Gk. "side by side"] In poetry a
state of correspondence between one phrase, line, or verse with another.
Parallelism seems to be the basic aesthetic principle of poetic utterance. . . .
Parallelism of clauses is the central principle of biblical verse . . . . [T]he
poet who has certainly made the most use of this device in English is Walt
Whitman. . . .
Examples of stylistic
parallelism in Western and American discourse
From The Bible (King James Version), Ecclesiastes,
Ch. 3
- To every
thing there is a season, and a time to every purpose under the heaven:
- A time to
be born, and a time to die; a time to plant, and a time to pluck up that
which is planted;
- A time to
kill, and a time to heal; a time to break down, and a time to build up;
- A time to
weep, and a time to laugh; a time to mourn, and a time to dance;
- A time to
cast away stones, and a time to gather stones together; a time to embrace,
and a time to refrain from embracing;
- A time to
get, and a time to lose; a time to keep, and a time to cast away;
- A time to
rend, and a time to sew; a time to keep silence, and a time to speak;
- A time to
love, and a time to hate; a time of war, and a time of peace. . . .
Abraham Lincoln, from "Address Delivered at the Dedication of the Cemetery at Gettysburg, November 19, 1863."
. . . But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate--we can not consecrate--we can not hallow--this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little not, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget wheat they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us--that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion--that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain--that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom--and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.
John F. Kennedy,
from Inaugural Address, 20 Jan. 1961, the Capitol, Washington DC
Let every nation know, whether it wishes us
well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship,
support any friend, oppose any foe, to assure the survival and the success of
liberty. This much we pledge - and more. To those old allies whose cultural and
spiritual origins we share, we pledge the loyalty of faithful friends. United,
there is little we cannot do in a host of cooperative ventures. Divided, there
is little we can do . . . .
And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what
your country can do for you - ask what you can do for your country.
My fellow citizens of the world: ask not what
America will do for you, but what together we can do for the freedom of man. . .
.
(Thanks to Titan Publishing. http://home.istar.ca/~titan/20jan61.htm)
Martin
Luther King, "I Have a Dream," 28 August
1963 [March on Washington, D. C., delivered at the Lincoln Memorial] (from A
Testament of Hope: The Essential Writings of Martin Luther King, Jr., ed. J.
M. Washington [SF: Harper & Row, 1986], pp. 217-220]
. . . So I say to you, my friends, that even though
we must face the difficulties of today and tomorrow, I
still have a dream. It is a dream
deeply rooted in the American dream, that one day this nation will rise up and
live out the true meaning of its creed--we hold these truths to be self-evident,
that all men are created equal.
I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia, sons of former slaves and sons of former slave-owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood.
I have a dream that one day, even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat of injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice.
I have a dream my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. I have a dream today!
I have a dream that one day, down in Alabama . . . .
I have a dream that one day every valley shall be exalted, every hill and mountain shall be made low, the rough places shall be made plain, and the crooked places shall be made straight and the glory of the Lord will be revealed and all flesh shall see it together. . . . [biblical paraphrase]
So let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire.
Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York.
Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania.
Let freedom ring from the snow-capped Rockies of Colorado.
Let freedom ring from the curvaceous slopes of California.
But not only that.
Let freedom ring from Stone Mountain of Georgia.
Let freedom ring from Lookout Mountain of Tennessee.
Let freedom ring from every hill and molehill of Mississippi, from every mountainside, let freedom ring. . . .
A more specific term for this type of parallelism is anaphora
Figure of repetition that occurs when the first word or set of words in one sentence, clause, or phrase is/are repeated at or very near the beginning of successive sentences, clauses, or phrases; repetition of the initial word(s) over successive phrases or clauses.
(American Rhetoric: http://www.americanrhetoric.com/figures/anaphora.htm)
(Poets.org: http://www.poets.org/viewmedia.php/prmMID/5770)
This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars,
This other Eden, demi-paradise,
This fortress built by Nature for herself
Against infection and the hand of war,
This happy breed of men, this little world,
This precious stone set in the silver sea,
Which serves it in the office of a wall,
Or as [a] moat defensive to a house,
Against the envy of less happier lands;
This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England,
This nurse, this teeming womb of royal kings [. . .]
This land of such dear souls, this dear dear land,
Dear for her reputation through the world,
Is now leas'd out — I die pronouncing it —
Like to a tenement or pelting farm.
—John of Gaunt in Shakespeare's Richard II (2.1.40-51; 57-60)
We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. We shall never surrender. -- Winston Churchill, speech to the House of Commons, June 4, 1940
Catalog or catalogue
Catalog [from Greek katalogos list] 1. archaic a list; register, enumeration of items. 2 a. A list of names, titles, or articles arranged methodically, often in alphabetical order . . . with prices for articles of merchandise. c. specifically, an official publication of a university or college giving regulations and announcements
Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, 7th ed.
[Catalogue of the devils in Hell in Milton’s Paradise Lost, 1667]
A multitude, like which the
populous North
Pour'd never from her frozen loyns . . . . Forthwith from every Squadron and
each Band
The Heads and Leaders thither hast where stood
Their great Commander; Godlike shapes and forms
Excelling human, Princely Dignities,
And Powers that erst in Heaven sat on Thrones;
Though of their Names in heav'nly Records now
Be no memorial, blotted out and raz'd
By their Rebellion, from the Books of Life. . . .
Say, Muse, their Names then known, who first, who last,
Rous'd from the slumber, on that fiery Couch. . .
First Moloch, horrid King
besmear'd with blood
Of human sacrifice, and parents tears . . .
Next Chemos, th' obscene
dread of Moabs Sons,
. . . .
With these in troop
Came Astoreth, whom the Phoenicians call'd
Astarte, Queen of Heav'n, with crescent Horns . . .
Thammuz came next behind,
. . . Next came one
Who mourn'd in earnest, when the Captive Ark
Maim'd his brute Image, head and hands lopt off . . .
Him follow'd Rimmon, whose
delightful Seat
Was fair Damascus, . . .
After these appear'd
A crew who under Names of old Renown,
Osiris, Isis, Orus and their Train
With monstrous shapes and sorceries . . .
Belial came last, then
whom a Spirit more lewd
Fell not from Heaven . . .
Changes subject matter of poetry--instead of poetry just being about pretty flowers and heroes of the past and noble sentiments, poetry becomes more about everyday life, including the streets and farms of common American life, its common people, and the problems they face in terms of democracy, sexual identity, race, etc.
Whitman resolves poetically a problem in American society that can't be resolved otherwise.
All Americans are equal.
Each American is special, unique, an individual.
Inherent contradiction between equality and individuality?
what I assume you shall assume
opposite equals advance
union (sexual, mystical, or both)
Something always potentially fresh and surprising about his style, especially since he's the first to try these approaches out.
Honesty and courage--Whitman faces what needs to be faced. Poetry is not an evasion but an encounter.
Flip-side: students sometimes don't like Whitman for these same reasons
His "fresh" style can be clunky and uninspired
His honesty and courage can take readers where they're not ready to go. Whitman has the power to make you wince!
Whitman is generally regarded as "the greatest American poet." Such a description is not necessarily the same as "the best," "the finest," "the most accomplished," "the most brilliant" poet, etc.
What makes a great writer or artist?
Quality of work: attracts, intrigues, challenges, motivates audience
*Whitman's poetry continually attracts and rewards new readers.
Significance of work: A great artist's work does not escape from the problems of the world but engages and, as far as possible, resolves them.
*Whitman is the "greatest American poet because more than any other he gives voice to some of the great themes or issues that animate the nation or people. Whitman’s most persistent American theme is (from objective 3) “the individual and the community,” which might be rephrased thus: How can you have a community of individuals? How can everyone be special and equal? ("Song of Myself" introduces him as "Walt Whitman, an American.")
Quantity of work: most great artists are highly productive, not just creating one masterpiece but a number of important pieces
*Nearly all of Whitman's best work appeared in the first 10 years of his career (1855-1865), but he always continued writing new poems, refining old poems, promoting his career.
Maturation, development, variation across career: great artists try different ideas, media, techniques--not just "one-trick ponies"
*Our first 3 poems appear in 1855-56 and demonstrate the breakthrough of the Whitman style, but "Lilacs" in 1865 shows some maturation of the style.
Great artists inherit and extend other artists' work: they know what's happened before, honoring, challenging, extending it.
*Though not classically educated, Whitman read widely in popular and classical literature, honored Emerson and other predecessors and saw himself as fulfilling their mission.
Great artists reshape or reform or revolutionize media and genres.
*Perhaps Whitman's greatest contribution. In poetry, Whitman both "freed verse" and opened poetry to new subjects, themes, contents (no longer was poetry "just pretty flowers," etc.)
Just as great artists are influenced by previous ones, so they influence other artists.
*It's commonly acknowledged that all American poets must come to terms with Whitman, either following in his style (Stevens, Ginsberg) or reacting against it (T. S. Eliot).
pro: (wild people, experimental forms,
raw emotions): Ezra Pound, Wallace Stevens, Hart Crane, Elizabeth Bishop, Diane
Wakowski, Allen Ginsberg, Jack Kerouac, Thomas Wolfe, + many others
con: (refined people, style, and subjects): T. S. Eliot, Robert Frost, Dickinson, Marianne Moore
*Whitman also has considerable international influence. He was admired by contemporary British poets such as Tennyson and Swinburne, whom he influenced. His free-verse style also influenced continental European poets in France and Italy, etc.
*Compared to tightly focused and quirkily lyrical poets like Dickinson, Whitman translates well.
*Whitman's style and subject matter also
influential on South and Central American poets: Pablo Neruda, Octavio Paz, J. L. Borges
If interested in Neruda, see Il Postino (The Postman)
*Whitman widely seen as the first great modern poet, in terms of poetic style and lifestyle.
Lifestyle: artist as bohemian, non-conformist, “other,” outsider trying to connect.
+ freeing of verse & expansion of
poetic subject matter shook up poetic world, now standard