2. How has American Romanticism continued or changed in post-Romantic American literature?—i. e., literature after the American Renaissance of the pre-Civil War generation?

Refer to at least three writers from our last four class meetings and to a contemporary poem from the presentations,

Sample Answers

The period of Post-Romanticism began after the conclusion of the Civil War. America’s cultural and literary identity subsequently veered away from Romanticism, manifesting itself in Realism. This progression reflects changes such as, movement away from a rural based economy towards an urban one, the struggle for equal rights by minorities and women and the homogenization of the American culture. Cultural changes oftentimes brought about social situations that authors yearned to transcend in their writing. In this manner, the spirit of Romanticism remains evident in the Post-Romantic period. 

The search for an African-American identity is one of the core aspects of the literary movement known as the Harlem Renaissance. African-American authors struggled to reconcile their collective history with their former masters, European-Americans. Authors such as Zora Neal Hurston and Langston Hughes disagreed over the manner in which “a black writer’s chief concern should be how blacks are being portrayed to the white reader” (N 2097). This concern is magnified by the fact that Harlem Renaissance writers were forced to cater to an all-white audience. Hurston’s white patron of the arts, Mrs. R. Osgood Mason, even censored her work, publishing only the pieces she saw fit for a gentrified audience.

Traces of Romanticism can be found in the writings of Harlem Renaissance writers. However, the imagery is usually reversed, reflecting the African-American’s inherent dichotomous opposition to traditional European-American iconography. Hurston is able to reflect on the experience of growing up in a rural community through the eyes of a Harlem intellectual. The short story “How it Feels to Be a Colored Me,” reflects the darkly Romantic crossing of the borders of racial separation. Hurston experienced a childhood “protected from racism”, but after her mother’s death, her “initiation into American racism began” (2096). Also reflecting the Romantic is the individualistic pride and determination to persevere that is alit within Hughes as a result of prejudice: “But I am not tragically colored. There is no great sorrow damned up in my soul, nor lurking in my eyes” (2098). Thus, Hurston accepts her alignment with the dark, or the ‘other’ half of the dichotomous pair of hemispheres called black and white.

 This opposition frequently is described in Romantic fashion through the Gothic. Writers in the heart of Romanticism, such as Hawthorne, wove images of shadowy forests and dark graveyards to evoke affectations of horror, and fear of damnation. The African-American writers of the Harlem Renaissance reversed this scheme, and took pride in their unavoidable accordance with the Gothic dark. Hurston articulates this opposition, “I feel most colored when I am thrown against a sharp white background…I am a dark rock surged upon, and overswept, but through it all, I remain myself. When covered by the waters, I am; and the ebb reveals me again” (2099). In this passage, Hurston examines her otherness, taking pride in the fact that she is different, while voicing her inherent inclusion within the fabric of America.  

African-American writers in the Harlem Renaissance were aware of the potential problems that being the voice of their race presented. Polemic discoursed raged over whether to embrace or reject their rural history of bondage and European-American heritage. Thus, many disagreements among these authors, such as the above-mentioned conflict between Hughes and Hurston, ensued over how they should be characterized. Interestingly, Hughes traveled Europe as a young man and gained perspective on the cultural history of the other. Subsequently returning to America, Hughes became the most noted figure of the Harlem Renaissance (2223-2224).

Hughes gives voice to the African-American identity in the poem “I, Too.” Romantic elements of the Gothic portray the characteristics of the African-American. Hughes wrote, “I, too, sing America. / I am the darker brother…They’ll see how beautiful I am/ And be ashamed” (N 2228). Like Hurston, Hughes proclaims his status as an American, and a vital part of her body as well. The Romantic opposition of light and dark runs prominently throughout the poem: the European-American’s are called they, placing Hughes in opposition to the dominant race. The inherent color of right is the main theme of the poem, as they will one day see the shamefulness of their racist ideologies.

Romantic era minority writers, such as William Apess, reminded their white readers of their shared genetic blueprints, and the concurrent absurdity of racial prejudice. James Fenimore Cooper espoused a flawed philosophy of  “natural repugnance,” a dictum that obviously bears no realistic merit. Racial separatist ideology ignores any ancestral commonalities between the races and penned those of mixed race the other. Hughes comments on this hypocrisy in “Mulatto”, “I am your son, white man!/…Like hell!” (2228). Gothic imagery is used to describe what could be ascertained as the rape of an African-American female in the dark of night: “What’s a body but a toy?/ Juicy bodies/ Of nigger wenches/ Blue black/ Against black fences” (N 2228). Hughes presents a horrifying scene in a Gothic fashion, and finds no remorse from the white pillagers.

Race was not the only social divider in the Post-Romantic era. Class also separated groups of individuals. F. Scott Fitzgerald discusses these class divisions in “Winter Dreams.” Fitzgerald has been called the “last blossom of European-American Romanticism” (Lecture). Romantic elements are found in Fitzgerald’s descriptions of Dexter’s desire for Judy Jones, and the accompanying realization of class boundaries that come with his courting.

Fitzgerald presents an ignorant sense of bliss, then the subsequent crashing in of the reality of class difference in “Winter Dreams,” which is set in his home state, Minnesota. The main character, Nathan, is a young man who has, he hopes, crossed the veiled borders of class. Growing up common Minnesotan caddy, the bootstrap pulling adult Nathan frequently reflects on his plebian youth. In a scene reminiscent of Emersonian Transcendentalism, Nathan relaxes on a raft on a Sublime lake: “It was his sense that, for once, he was magnificently attuned to life” (2132). Emily Masterson also made this connection to the Romantic sublime; “Dexter’s reminiscing brings with it an element of pain and a memory of transcendent experience” (Masterson). Enraptured by nature, the modern world still seeps through the grandeur, creating a pleasant, comforting sensation; ”Over on a dark peninsula a piano was playing the songs of last summer” (2132). This peaceful image is shattered by the roar of Judy Jones powerboat, subsequently slapping him awake to the stern reality of class difference.

The jovial Miss Jones invites Nathan to her palace, or so it seems to him. Nathan is grossly aware of his true class position as he ponders, “the sun porch that opened from it with the men who had already loved Judy Jones. He knew what sort of men they were” (2133). Dexter is then presented with the painful choice: to tell the truth or lie about his past. Dexter wonders, “There were two versions of his life he could tell” (2135). Seemingly commenting on American’s inability to resist the drive for success, Nathan fibs, “I’m probably making more money than any man my age” (2135). “Winter Dreams” ultimately mirrors the Romantic desire for transcendence. However, set amidst the cold throes of Realism, the Romantic model adopts to the new times, and Nathan’s forlorn realization that “The gates were closed, the sun was gone down and there was no beauty but the grey beauty of steel that withstands all time” (2143). If Fitzgerald really was the last blossom of Romanticism, the preceding passage could be thought of as analogous to the closing of Romanticism’s floral pod.

However, Romantic ideology still sifts into the modern period. Themes that preserve the past and pass along cultural transitions exhibit characteristics of Romanticism. Simon J. Ortiz, a modern American Indian poet recalls the realization of his tradition through a Romantically sublime landscape. Michelle Gooding’s question, “What does it mean?” is an accurate one, as it reflects the common misunderstanding of the Native American through the eyes of European American’s. Ortiz work examines the misrepresentation of the Indian in American culture, dramatizing “Ortiz’s disorientation as he moves within an American where Indian names are reduced to billboard signs” (2813).

Ortiz strove to prove that, “the native American way of life is continuous, despite all the forces that attempt to eradicate it” (2813). In “Earth and Rain, the Plants and Sun” the young protagonist Raho recalls a family trip “near San Ysidro” (2814). En route, Raho catches sight of a free flying hawk over a sublime landscape (2814). His father then relates to him the ritual of the Kachina, a dance of the shaman designed to bring rain, and a continuance of the Indian way of life. This poem reflects Romantic notions of transcendentalism, and oneness with nature. Pessimistically, it could bring to light the Indian’s masquerade (i.e. shamans) through contemporary American iconography. Either way, Ortiz’s poem recalls Romanticism through its scenery and ideas of transcendence and continuance of an ideal.

Thus, the Post-Romantic period can be tied into an ongoing process of Americanization, and homogenization. The lines that divide the people of America are still strong, and Post-Romantic writers such as Hurtson and Hughes articulated Romantic crossings, and dichotomous oppositions of these boundaries. The mystical notion that we are all somehow connected, and that this connection is most evident when enveloped by nature, also continues, evidenced in Fitzgerald’s “Winter Dreams.” Finally, Ortiz ambiguously portrays a cultural heritage that he is reluctant to dispose of, in face of bastardized representations of his people (billboards), by the Anglican-Americans. The traces of Romanticism that remain in the Post-Romantic suggest that the movement of Romanticism was an inherently humanist genre, and that bits and pieces of its principle ideologies will always be woven in with the fabric of American identity. [MM]

Characteristics of romanticism continue to flourish in the post-Romantic era. Writers, such as Sandburg, James, Hurston, and Plath, reach to Romanticism for many of the features that both enchanted and challenged readers of Cooper, Irving, Hawthorne, and others. Cultural shifts in attitude, presented in these works, shed new light on, modify, and even eliminate some of Romanticism’s traits.

Carl Sandburg’s poetry combines elements of Realism and Romanticism. Amidst the harsh city of “Chicago,” features of Romanticism include elevation of the common man and correspondence, and in “Grass,” similar to the romantics, nature is again celebrated, but in a new way.

In his poem, “Chicago,” Sandburg realistically portrays the common man, moving him into the gritty city while simultaneously, romantically elevating his status. Describing the urban environment with harsh sounds, and using descriptors such as “wicked,” “crooked,” and “brutal,” he presents common workers in this insensitive, unromantic landscape. Collectively, they form the “city with lifted head singing so / proud to be alive and coarse and strong and cunning,” (1917) thus, the hero, the common man, the worker, making hourly wages, is celebrated.

The nostalgia and idealization of Romanticism is not found in the big city and has been replaced by the fierce reality of a highly industrialized area in which to dwell. The heroes of Chicago work with their hands, butchering hogs, building railroads, and making tools. Gone is the idealized portrayal of a hero who does not seem to even need to work, such as Hawkeye, who lives off the land.

Another element of Romanticism found in “Chicago” is correspondence. Despite the “terrible burden,” the young worker laughs, “Bragging and laughing that under his wrist is the pulse, and / under his ribs the heart of the people” (1918), indicating that one worker represents all who live in the city.  Similar to the correspondence found in Emerson’s writing, but sounding much less romantic, the individual worker corresponds to all workers.

            Extending Emerson’s ideas on nature, in “Grass,” Sandburg elevates nature, having the grass serve as the memory holder of past events that occurred in its midst. Where humans have forgotten the casualties of war, nature, or grass, in its purity, remembers. Thus, nature is simultaneously given human characteristics and rises above humans.

            In Sandburg’s poetry, Romanticism’s quest, transcendence, and rebellion have disappeared. Instead of the individual versus the masses, Sandburg presents the individual, with raised status, as part of the masses, thus raising the status of all common men. Nature remains important but in a changed form, such as in “Grass,” where instead of nature being celebrated for its wildness, it is recognized and honored for its innocence. 

            Henry James, in “Daisy Miller,” also includes aspects of Romanticism, though some are variations. This realistic story, with Realism’s inner musings and reflections, includes romantic features, including the desire and loss, rebellion, and the quest. 

            The romantic quest remains but its nature is altered. The story presents Mr. Winterbourne on a quest for love, and although the genre is Realism, he does not seem authentic. The portrayal of his feelings for Daisy are neither romanticized nor realistic; instead, it seems to be a realistic portrayal of a disingenuous character, one who is alienated from himself and others, one who lacks the ability to connect to another human being in any meaningful way. Thus, the idealized romantic pursuit of love is still attempted but has no chance of success. 

            Rebelling against society’s rules for women, Daisy embarks on a quest to live by her own rules. Although her behavior is blamed, in part, on her being an American, she goes beyond her home country’s social rules, crossing the border of acceptable behavior for all women of her era. For instance, with a combination of “audacity and innocence” (1524), Daisy acts impulsively, without regard to others’ judgment of her. Experiencing a “good thing,” seeing the “Colosseum [sic] by moonlight” (1537) is more important to her than what people think of her experience. 

            Romanticism’s desire and loss continues but is also altered. Daisy desires not one man throughout the story; instead she seems to desire fun, which may or may not involve seemingly any particular man. By contrast, the perplexed Mr. Winterbourne seems incapable of truly desiring a woman. He is both drawn to and repulsed by Daisy. His intense desire for her at the beginning of the story begins to wane as he “studies” her, until it stops suddenly when, in horror, he gains what he perceives as a true vision of her: “a young lady whom a gentleman need no longer be at pains to respect” (1536). The loss appears at the end of the story, when Daisy dies, but Mr. Winterbourne, the one set up at the beginning of the story as the possible love interest, does not genuinely mourn her death. He merely continues to study the situation (and to study the next one), illustrating his continued disconnection and lack of insight.

            Romanticism’s quest, rebellion, and desire and loss are altered but are still recognizable in James’ Realism. The quest is futile from the start, as Mr. Winterbourne is completely incapable of romantic love. Romanticism’s rebellion continues in Daisy, though she lacks the reader sympathy and likeability that Cora, of Mohicans, enjoys. Daisy crosses too far over the boundary of acceptable social behavior, coming across more foolish than courageous. Romanticism’s desire and loss remains but lacks the passion and authenticity of earlier works. Cora’s subtle, possible desire for Uncas seems more authentic than these characters’ obvious desires.

            Zora Neale Hurston, an African-American woman writer associated with the Harlem Renaissance, followed her own path and was criticized because she refused “to align her work with anybody’s ideologies” (2097).  Desire and loss and rebellion are the main components of Romanticism found in “How it Feels to Be Colored Me” and “Gilded Six Bits,” though they appear in somewhat modified forms.  

            Both essays feature women who follow their own path, and neither seem too concerned about whether or not their actions are construed as rebellious. In other words, they appear to be simply following their own instincts instead of attempting to outwardly rebel against their society’s expectations. For instance, in “How it Feels,” she rebels by not rebelling. She insists, “[. . .] I am not tragically colored. There is no great sorrow dammed up in my soul, nor lurking behind my eyes” (2098). Instead, she perceives that “the world is to the strong,” regardless of color (2098).  She indicates others’ displeasure at her attitude, saying they remind her that she is descended from slaves, but she cavalierly shrugs their ideas off with humor. In “Gilded Six Bits,” her motivation for rebelling is, ironically, her love and devotion to her husband. She rebels by breaking the vows of marriage when she sleeps with another man, for money. But she does not just want the money for herself; she wants to present the money to her husband, the man she passionately loves.

            Another idea reminiscent of Romanticism, correspondence, is found in the same form in “How it Feels.” Sounding similar to Emerson, she says, “I have no separate feeling about being an American citizen and colored. I am merely a fragment of the Great Soul that surges within the boundaries” (2100).

            Desire and loss is also found in both essays but in modified forms. In “How it Feels,” she shows a tremendous, passionate desire to enjoy life. This strong desire is what seems to lessen or negate any possible negative attitude toward whites in regard to their past (or ongoing) treatment of blacks. The paragraph in which she explains that she is not “tragically colored” ends with a statement that illustrates her optimistic desire: “No, I do not weep at the world—I am too busy sharpening my oyster knife” (2098). 

In contrast, the equally passionate desire found in “Gilded Six-Bits” is related to love. Here, the desire is between husband and wife, Joe and Missie May. Happily married, they grin when they see each other or when they even think of one another. Their relationship consists of a child-like innocence, a playfulness, yet intimate and trusting. The bond between them, held together by intense love and desire, seems unbreakable, which is why it is so surprising when she sleeps with another man. Yet almost absurdly, she sleeps with Slemmons so that Joe can also wear “de finest clothes.” She notices Joe’s admiration for Slemmon’s stature, gained by his supposed wealth, and tries to explain to Joe that it makes no difference to her. She tells him, “Aw, he don’t look no better in his clothes than you do in yourn” (2102). Clearly, Joe is much more impressed by Slemmons than Missie May, and she knows it. Hence, ironically, her desire to satisfy her husband’s desire becomes her motivation to cheat on him.

Hurston’s writing continues main ideas of Romanticism, but she, operating in a different historical context, adapts to her contemporary culture. In “How it Feels,” she adamantly insists that she is free to live in the present, without carrying the burden of her ancestors. In “Gilded,” the rebellion is not directly connected to desire; instead, money connects the desire with the rebellion. What has continued without modification is the idea that desire often leads to rebellion.

Sylvia Plath’s poem, “Blackberrying,” sounds much more romantic than the meaning reveals. Romantic images envelop stark Realism. The elements of romanticism contrast sharply with the image of overwhelming despair revealed at the end of her poem, and the contrasting images heighten the level of feeling, of passion. Hence, the romantic context is used more as a comparison than as a foundation. 

The romantic images, from the title through much of the first stanza, set up the reader to expect a pleasant outcome. Along the path to a “heaving” sea, she finds berries “fat / With blue-red juices” of such abundance that they fill the “milkbottle, flattening their sides” (2783).  But ultimately, the reader’s expectations of what will happen on the “blackberrying” adventure are thwarted by the disturbing hollow uselessness she ultimately discovers at the end of her journey, rendering the poem much closer to Realism than Romanticism.

Ideas and images of desire and loss permeate the poem. The winding country lane, bordered by thick juicy blackberries sets the tone for a calm peaceful stroll. But instead of someone like Emerson strolling down the lane, connecting to nature, and finding transcendence at the end, the poem features a woman who reaches the end of her journey, only to see white shining lights revealing a blank space and hear futile banging on metal, a vision of emptiness. The fruitfulness of the first stanza sets up a hunger, a desire, and in spite of the speaker-poet’s fear, “I do not think the sea will appear at all,” the reader does not give up and hopes she will fulfill her desire, continuing so until the abrupt devastating loss at the end.  As Emily Masterson states in her final exam, “The ending seems to convey loss on a massive scale—the intrusiveness of industry and modern civilization takes over and spoils natural beauty. In this manner, Plath’s poem is firmly rooted in Realism” (Masterson).

The initial natural setting, the journey, and the desire and loss, all elements of Romanticism, may create the potential for fulfillment and give the appearance of Romanticism. But the abrupt nihilistic ending obliterates any possibility of romantic fulfillment. Instead, these romantic aspects serve as contrasts to “reality.” Romanticism fits into the poem instead of the poem fitting in to Romanticism.

American Romanticism in post-Romantic American literature continues to feature many of its original characteristics, including rebellion, desire and loss, the quest, and correspondence, though changes in social attitudes alter contexts. The theme of desire and loss, above all, seems to be the most prominent feature remaining from Romanticism, perhaps because besides being a universal theme, it also corresponds so well to Realism. [JT]