LITR 4232: American Renaissance

Sample Student Research Project, fall 2004

Linsey Allnatt
American Renaissance
Academic Journal
Fall 2004

Musicality of the American Renaissance:

Poe and his contemporaries

Introduction:

            There are many authors of the American Renaissance with a distinctly musical style of writing.  Perhaps the most notably musical of these authors is Edgar Allan Poe, who is arguably the most musical poet of his time.  When I first heard his poetry termed “musical,” I was surprised, and intrigued, by the description.  I had read quite a bit of his poetry before and, though I had recognized the lyrical, flowing impact of much of his verse, I had never thought of it as musical, which of course it is.  After having identified exactly what makes his poetry musical, it was easy to identify the same qualities in writings of other poets.  Other authors such as Henry Wordsworth Longfellow, William Cullen Bryant, and Frances Sargent Osgood wrote during the same time, and composed several poems in a similar melodic style. 

            Many poems by the aforementioned authors are exceedingly lyrical; some even contain musical words or phrases in their titles, or have musical subjects.  Poe’s poetry includes several ballads, and both Longfellow and Bryant wrote quite a bit of poetry as songs or hymns.  Osgood, on the other hand, wrote exceptionally lyrical poetry without musical titles or blatant musical connotations in her verse.  All four authors however, used various poetic devices to add to the musicality of their works, as will be explained throughout this journal.

            In taking on this particular topic as a research project, I had to determine which direction I wanted to take.  I knew I first had to find out what makes a poem musical.  Once familiar with the term musicality as applied to poetry, I noticed it in many different places.  When reading John Donne in another class, the degree of musicality he reaches with his poetry struck me at once.  I also began to hear exactly how musical many of Shakespeare’s sonnets are.  It was even brought to my attention that Langston Hughes and many jazz era poets wrote extremely tuneful poetry as well.  Because there is so much musicality to be found in so many different areas of literature, I decided my journal would be most cohesive by working with one particular period, and it works best with the purpose of our class to choose that of the American Renaissance.

What makes a poem musical?

Poetry is often known for rhyme, with free verse as the major exception, but all rhymes do not make music, and musical poetry is usually made up of more than just rhymes.  A rhyme is when the last vowel sound and consonant sound is repeated; for instance, sun rhymes with run, and schooner rhymes with tuner. The rhyme scheme of a poem is a particular pattern of rhymes, usually at the end of a sentence.  For example, in Poe’s poem Annabel Lee, in the first few lines, almost every other line rhymes:

a - It was many and many a year ago,                                     
b -    In a kingdom by the sea,

a - That a maiden there lived whom you may know
b -    By the name of ANNABEL LEE;
c - And this maiden she lived with no other thought
b -    Than to love and be loved by me (Poe 2473)

The rhyme pattern of this particular poem is a b a b c b, and the way these lines rhyme and work together gives the poem a pleasing, melodious tone. 

            The rhythm of a poem can also make it musical.  Rhythm, or the pattern of stresses and pauses in a line of poetry, can give any line a song-like quality.  The meter of a poem also greatly affects the way that a line of poetry is heard, and the stress put on certain syllables in the rhythm of a line affects the meter.  As in a song, the rhythm of a poem helps set the mood or tune the reader hears as the lines of a poem are read.     

Alliteration and assonance also work with rhyme to make a poem sound musical.  Assonance, by definition, is the repetition of the same vowel sound in multiple words where the consonants are not the same; the words grave and fate have the same long “a” sound for their first vowel.  The first line of Bryant’s To Cole, the Painter, Departing from Europe also demonstrates this technique;

Thine eyes shall see the light of distant skies (Bryant 2817).

In this poem, thine, eyes, light and skies have the same vowel sound, that of a long “I.”  The position of the vowel sound in these words, give the line in which they sit an attractive sound, adding to the musicality of the line. 

            Alliteration is one of the most obvious and catchy techniques used to make a poem musical.  This is when the same sound recurs at the beginning of two or more words in succession.  In Bryant’s The Yellow Violet, “beechen buds begin to swell” (Bryant 2815); this of course is an excellent example of alliteration, which is used throughout the poem, thus contributing to the musicality of the poem.

            Sometimes a line, or refrain, is repeated every so many lines, or at the end of a stanza; this adds to the idea that the poem is indeed like a piece of music because songs often have a chorus or refrain.  Refrains are generally seen in poems entitled ballads or songs. 

Bee thunders of the upper de          

Edgar Allan Poe: (1809-1849)                                                    

            Poe was the foremost musical poet of his generation.  His attitude toward poetry, especially early in his career, was romantic and rhythmically motivated.  He seemed to feel that there was a close relation to poetry and music in that there were qualities in one that would benefit the other, and that ideas expressed through musical poetry could more easily evoke feelings of beauty.  He believed music to be “the most indefinite of the arts, and therefore that poetry can catch some of this quality by being musical” (Buranelli 2); in being musical, poetry is able to acquire the indefinite essence of music.  This is perhaps the reason much of Poe’s poetry is undeniably musical. 

            Similar attitudes can be seen in his Letter to B--, which includes the following lines: “Music, when combined with a pleasurable idea, is poetry; music without the idea is simply music; the idea without the music is prose from its very definitiveness” (Poe).  Music and poetry are separate genres, but when intertwined can produce a more appealing piece of work; poetry needs to be musical in order to be elevated above regular prose.  It can also be inferred that Poe composes poetry in order to “arouse the reader’s sense of beauty through its use of rhyme, rhythm, and repetition” (Semansky1).  When used, poetic devices such as rhyme, rhythm and repetition allow the reader to be drawn into the poem.  The sound produced in using such techniques reminds the reader of different, perhaps more beautiful, times or places, thus making Poe’s style of writing romantic as well as musical.

Poe’s above-mentioned explanation of his mind-set is rather ironic, however, in that some of his poems have been criticized as being musical to the point that the idea or subject behind the poem is made less significant.  One critic “deems The Bells ‘superficial’ because of its focus on sound rather than ideas” (Semansky 1); this acknowledges the writer’s gifted ability to use poetic devices to produce such a melodious piece, but alleges that the extent to which it is musical undermines any idea the writer may have been attempting to convey.  Nonetheless, “there is a good chance, if his poems are too musical, that Poe may be willing to settle for weakness in his poem’s thoughts if he feels audiences are kept amused enough with the excellence of his music” (Kelly 1).  Even if the ideas behind Poe’s poems, The Bells and others are slightly hidden behind the pleasing sound the work creates, it may not matter as long as the audience is content with the overall product.

The Bells and Bridal Ballad are two of the most musical poems Poe wrote.  In The Bells, Poe used the repetition of words that describe sounds, rhythm and rhyme to produce a musical overtone.  He writes of sounds that bells make, like tinkling and jingling, to reproduce the sound of bells, and he repeats the word bells numerous times.  The rhythm of the lines is rather measured, creating a jingling effect in the words themselves.  One can almost hear the rhythmic ringing of bells in the first stanza in the word pattern created.

His Bridal Ballad uses a slightly different approach in attaining musicality.  This poem is exactly what the title indicates, a ballad, complete with varied refrain.  It is almost as if he is actually singing a song to his wife on his wedding day.

The ring is on my hand,
            And the wreath is on my brow;
            Satin and jewels grand
            Are all at my command,
            And I am happy now (Poe 2464).

A version of the last line of the first stanza is repeated at the end of every proceeding stanza.  “And who is happy now,” “’Oh, I am happy now!’” “That proves me happy now!” and “May not be happy now” are all variations of the same line.  As in a song, this technique seems to further illustrate his point in writing the poem, that he is happy because he was married.       

It is also interesting to note Poe’s verse has even inspired the compositions of several composers, such as Ravel and Debussy, who have set his words to music (Buranelli 3). Though his poetry may be too overtly musical at times, it is generally agreed that Poe’s particular style adds interest and depth to his poetry.

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow: (1807-1882)

            Longfellow is another very popular author who wrote poetry with a distinctly musical inflection.  The fact that he began his career as a linguist who traveled extensively surely strengthened his ability to produce lyrical poetry, and “his large vocabulary no doubt aided his meter and rhyme, thus the smoothness and the melody of his verse” (Williams).  Longfellow had such a gift for words and language that beautiful verse came naturally to him.  One main reason for his popularity and the significance of his poetry “was that he had the gift of easy rhyme; […] he wrote poetry as a bird sings, with natural grace and melody” (Rabe).  His work in particular seems unforced, as if evidence that he did not have to go to great lengths to achieve a rhyme to fit his scheme.  It has also been commented that “the melody of his versification is very remarkable; some of his stanzas sound with the richest and sweetest music of which language is capable” (Felton 1).  Longfellow is pleasant and enjoyable to read to begin with, but when he adds musical aspects to his verse, the effect is astounding.

            One of the more musical of Longfellow’s poems is The Rainy Day.  This poem is made musical primarily because of the rhythm, alliteration and the repetition of thoughts in a refrain.  In the first stanza of the poem, 

            The day is cold, and dark, and dreary

            It rains, and the winds are never weary;

            The vine still clings to the moldering wall,

            But at every gust the dead leaves fall,

            And the day is dark and dreary (Longfellow);

the dark, dreary day mentioned provides the poem with alliteration and, since a similar line is reproduced at the end of the other two stanzas, which are not reprinted here, a refrain is created adding to the musical impact.  His other poems such as A Psalm of Life, The Song of Hiawatha, and Paul Revere’s Ride are also well known for their melodic appeal. 

            Longfellow’s natural endowment of linguistic ability, along with his talent for stringing words together, resulted in his vast public appeal, in his both time, and many years since.    

William Cullen Bryant: (1794-1878)

            Bryant too was a poet with an exceptional ability to create musical poetry.  He was known to have written “pieces which now form a unique panorama of nature’s aspects, moving to the music of lofty thoughts and melodious words” (Stedman 1).  The thoughts behind the poem and word choice of the author often enhanced the musical impact of the poetry he wrote.  The fact that he also wrote music for the piano undoubtedly affected his written style as well; even in writing actual music, “his lyrics, in swift and simple measures, had a ringing quality” (Stedman 1).  His verse was made musical by his ability to work with music, and his music was made unique because of his ability to write such eloquent verse.  This system of composition seems to work with Poe’s idea that poetry and music work well together and that each gives the other a more powerful impact. 

            I have already mentioned the use of alliteration in his Yellow Violet, but there are other devices used in the poem that add to its musical feel.  In the fifth stanza assonance, rhythm and rhyme play an important role in allowing musicality to prevail.

            Yet slight thy form, and low thy seat,

            And earthward bent thy gentle eye,

            Unapt the passing view to meet,

            When loftier flowers are flaunting nigh (Bryant 2816).

Assonance helps the progression of lines, as does the rhythm, and the rhyme ties the lines of the stanza together, again adding to the lyrical tone of the poem.  Many of his other poems, Forest Hymn, Hymn to the North Star, and To a Waterfowl to name a few, are all as equally musical.  

            Bryant’s ability to manipulate words and music simultaneously enriched both of the areas in which he worked.  It is because of his considerable talent in both areas that his poetry was successful and has endured.

Frances Sargent Locke Osgood: (1811-1850)

            Frances Osgood also wrote poetry that was musical in nature.  Since she was closely acquainted with Edgar Allan Poe, whose work she admired, it is likely that she was influenced by the musical style in which he wrote.  Though her poetry was not as obviously tuneful as Poe’s was, much of her work has an undeniably musical feel.  Osgood’s writing expresses emotion through musicality primarily in the form of rhyme and rhythm.      

Ellen Learning to Walk has an almost singsong aura and is reminiscent of a nursery rhyme.  In the first stanza:

My beautiful trembler! how wildly she shrinks!

And how wistful she looks while she lingers!

Papa is extremely uncivil, she thinks,--

She but pleaded for one of his fingers!

 the rhythm of her verse and the rhyme at the end of each line gives a musical feel to the story that is being depicted.  This poem, though not technically a ballad, reads like one; it tells a story of a little girl taking her first steps in a manner that can be easily understood by anyone who reads it and uses musical qualities to evoke joyous emotion.  The Little Hand uses the same poetic devices to convey sentiment, though in this case the emotion suggested is that of sadness.  In both poems, it is most noticeably the rhythm of her words and the rhyming of lines in a memorable format that induces musical feelings in the reader.  

Conclusion:

            The musicality of poetry is a quality that gives poems an extra something that identifies them and their authors as above ordinary.  Though musicality can sometimes take away from the initial purpose or idea of a poem, the beauty that is left behind, and sense of skill inferred on behalf of the author seem to overwhelm any sense of loss over the original idea.  Even if one happens to dislike musical poetry, there is not arguing the positive aspects of the style.  

In doing this research project, I have learned a lot about poetry that I did not already know, and what I already knew was applied to poems that I had not previously worked with.  I have also learned to think of poetry and music together instead of only as different artistic mediums through which ideas are communicated to the public.  It was fascinating for me to be able to recognize certain elements of a poem as musical.  I hate to admit it but when reading a poem before, I used to find myself liking it more if I liked the way it sounded.  This still holds true to some extent, but since I am now able to see what makes poetry sound the ways it does, I have a better appreciation for the words themselves.  I have come to admire the musicality of poetry, and the authors I have researched have become some of my favorites.  The pleasant, sometimes almost hypnotic flow they bring to their poems, to me at least is extremely enjoyable to read.

            If I continued my research in this general area, I would perhaps like to look into the poetry of other eras or areas.  Other poets of the same period as the American Renaissance, but in a different area, such as Tennyson, Wordsworth and other Victorian poets were very musically inclined as well.  Also, as I mentioned in my introduction, many of the metaphysical poets of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries tended to write in exceptionally musical verse too, as did the jazz era poets of the twentieth century, both of which should prove interesting to examine.  I have not read much of the latter, but I am sure the musicality of their verse would as equally entertaining. 

            In all of these areas, I would observe whether the devices used have changed or evolved into other forms in order to better serve the purpose of the author.  It is possible that, though two poems from different eras both sound musical, they have reached that point by different means.  For instance, Donne and Hughes have both written poetry that sounds musical to the reader, but the question of whether or not the same techniques were used to suggest musicality is raised.  I might also like to discern the motivations of musical authors.  Were they attempting merely to make the poem sound nice, or was a certain ordinary sound, like bells trying to be obtained through words rather than sound?  All of these issues would be interesting to explore at a later date.

 Works Cited

Bryant, William Cullen. “The Yellow Violet.” The Heath Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Paul Lauter.  4^th ed. vol. 1.  Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002. 2815-2816.

Bryant, William Cullen. “To Cole, the Painter, Departing from Europe.” The Heath Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Paul Lauter.  4^th ed. vol. 1.  Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002. 2817.

Buranelli, Vincent.  “Edgar Allan Poe.” Twayne’s United States Authors Series Online. New York: G K Hall & Co, 1999.

Felton, C.C. “Longfellow’s Ballads & Other Poems.” The North American Review.

Vol. 55, No 116, 1842.

Kelly, David. “Overview of Annabel Lee.” Poetry for Students. Vol.9, the Gale Group, 2000.

Osgood, Frances. “Ellen Learning to Walk.” The Heath Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Paul Lauter. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2002. 2831. 

Poe, Edgar Allan. “Annabel Lee.” The Heath Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Paul Lauter. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2002. 2473-2474.

Poe, Edgar Allan. “Bridal Ballad.” The Heath Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Paul Lauter. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2002. 2464-2465.

Poe, Edgar Allan. “Letter to B--.” The Lost Art of the Essay. RJT Net. 1999-2000. 8 November 2004.

            < http://www.essayists.8m.com/lettertob.html>.

Poe, Edgar Allan. “The Bells.” The Tell-Tale Heart and Other Writings. New York:  Bantam Books, 1982. 411-414.

Rabe, Roberto. “Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.” Auburn.edu. 2004. 12 November 2004.

< http://eclecticesoterica.com/longfellow_bio.html>.

Semansky, Chris. “An Overview of The Bells.” Poetry for Students. Gale, 1998.

Stedman, Edmund. “William Cullen Bryant.” Poets of America. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1885. 62. Reprinted in Nineteenth Century Literary Criticism. Vo.6.

Williams, Cecil B. “Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.” Twayne’s United States Authors Series Online. New York: Hall & Co, 1999.