Barbara Sharp
Dr. Craig White
LITR 4232, American Renaissance
March 10, 2001

Voices of Consciousness: Defining Self-Awareness in the American Renaissance

Literature in the American Renaissance influenced the Romantic sentiment that prevailed during this period: the emergence of the individual. This materialization evolved out of the Age of Reason, when the question of using reason (a conscious state) or faith (an unconscious state) as a basis for establishing a set of beliefs divided people into secular and non-secular groups. Reacting to the generally submissive attitudes predominant in America at this time, nineteenth century writers envisioned "the source of religion within consciousness itself" (Chai, 10). This "secularization of religion" ultimately led to the "isolation of the self from others" (Chai, 10), and manifested the persuasive theme in Renaissance literature that promoted independent thinking. The writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson, Edgar Allan Poe, and Walt Whitman all emanate from this Romantic spirit. "Trust thyself" asserts Emerson, do not remain "clapped in jail by [your] consciousness" (261), be "led [out] in triumph by nature" (542). Merging the individual and nature is a common motif in Romanticism, but these writers had contrasting views on the dynamics of this connection. While Emerson and Whitman were on one end of the Romantic meter proclaiming the potential greatness of the individual, Poe was at the other end questioning human nature. Indeed, the literature these authors produced are relative to the Romantic trend in elevating self-awareness, however their work demonstrates Emerson and Whitman differ with Poe regarding the ascendancy of the conscious and unconscious states of the mind.

Emerson and Whitman celebrated the conscious power of the individual, while Poe exposed the hidden fears repressed within the unconscious self. In each of their separate philosophies regarding the make-up of this individual, there is always a common quality of being separate but equal, someone who neither conforms to society nor rejects it completely, but stands apart, independent in thought. This individual is the Romantic hero, the one "who in the midst of a crowd keeps with perfect sweetness the independence of solitude" (Emerson, 263). Emerson explains how this transcendence from a dulled state of consciousness to a higher level of awareness is achievable if you "insist on yourself; [and] never imitate" (278). In his usual candid style, Whitman identifies himself as this hero in Song of Myself proclaiming, "I exist as I am, that is enough, / And if no other in the world be aware I sit content, / And if each and all be aware I sit content. / One world is aware, and by far the largest to me, and that is myself" (2759). Improbable as it seems, Poe's hero begins to resemble the 'me' in Whitman's last line "who trustingly consults and thoroughly questions his own soul" (qtd in Rosenheim, 25). This correspondence in self-awareness links these authors to each other, and to Romanticism.

Clearly Emerson and Whitman leaned in one direction of Romanticism while Poe sought the other. Perhaps the most fascinating discovery though, is how on every front, Poe demonstrates a strikingly different perspective on self-awareness from that of Emerson and Whitman. Moreover, their ideas were not simply divided by their bias for either a conscious or unconscious state; in fact, all three writers switch from one perspective to the other depending on which aspect of poetic composition they were working on or discussing.

For instance, when Emerson and Whitman relate their thoughts on poetic composition, they advocate a natural, spontaneous (unconscious) evolutionary process. In each of their essays on this subject, they not only define the qualities they believe merit a great poet, the manner in which this poet formulates ideas and sets them on paper is also discussed. Emerson and Whitman view poetic conception in much the same way as Coleridge's theory of organic form, that is, they believe that good poetry is composed in a natural succession "by evolving the germ within by [using] the imaginative (or unconscious) power according to an idea" (Coleridge, 410). Indeed, Emerson insists that the great poet "perceives the independence of the thought" realizing that "expression, or naming, is not art" (456-7). To Emerson, "form [is] merely an expression of the spiritual element or divine energy" in which "thought [ . . . ] permeates substance" (Chai, 65). He surmises that the formation of an idea is "no longer the defining attribute" for designing good poetry; it is instead, "the flow of spiritual energy into matter" (Chai, 65). Whitman's ideas of course, stand parallel with Emerson's, evidenced by his avowal that, "what I experience or portray shall go from my composition without a shread of my composition" (Song, 2735). Again, as Whitman shows his alignment with Emerson's tenets, he is more candid in his expression, emphasizing a clear assertion in his message.

Poe on the other hand, mandates that there is a conscious, step-by-step procedure for writing good poetry. This mechanical formula contrasts with the theory that good poetry is happenstance, conceived without any conscious effort. Indeed, Poe details "the precise mode of procedure" for writing poetry (1529), he looks at the process from an aesthetic perspective: how each step enhances the next step, with the final goal always in his sight. In The Philosophy of Composition, Poe contends that "originality [ . . . ] is by no means a matter, as some suppose, of impulse or intuition" but "must be elaborately sought" (1534). Here, Poe insists that preplanning is essential for producing poetry that is effective and original. Moreover, the implications in his statement indicate his aversion for the transcendentalist viewpoint.

Perhaps the most contrasting feature between these three writers, is the effect their work produces. Tone was the key component generating the desirable effect that these authors aspired to achieve in a piece of literature. Certainly it appears Poe acknowledges this sentiment, stating, "I prefer commencing with the consideration of an effect" (1529). He is of course famous for the melancholy tone that is consistent with the undercurrent of fear and/or sadness pervading his poetry and short stories. Whitman's writings on the other hand, can not be 'pinned down' in the same way as Poe's; Whitman emits a mercurial tone parallel with "the grand American expression" that is "brawny [ . . . ] and limber," and representative of "the speech of the proud and melancholy" (emphasis added) (Preface, 2742). Emerson lacks the intensity and candidness that Whitman incites; however these "differences [ . . . ] are mostly implicit in the poetry, certainly never stressed as differences, but they have a great deal to do with the impression the poetry makes on us" (Waggoner, 161). Although Emerson's writings do not exude the same energy as Whitman's, it does not change the fact that they produce and share in the same ideas of self-awareness.

On the other hand, the contrast in tone that emanates from Poe's work is due in part to his distinct perspective of beauty, and how it affects the individual. Poe saw "beauty of whatever kind, in its supreme development," as an element that "invariably excites the sensitive soul to tears" (1531). Certainly it is clear here that he did not look at beauty in terms of aesthetic appeal. Instead, Poe felt that beauty should derive from "the tone of its highest manifestation" and determined "melancholy [ . . . ] the most legitimate of all the poetic tones" (1531). Poe legitimizes the feeling of deep sadness by acknowledging that this response is a manifestation of normal human emotions, and as such, is a beautiful experience that should not be repressed.

Emerson and Whitman on the contrary, take a different view of beauty; instead of seeing it as an element to be directed by the poet, they feel that, "the poet is the sayer, the namer, and represents beauty" (emphasis added) (Emerson, 449), and that "all beauty comes from beautiful blood and beautiful brains" (Whitman Preface, 2733). These passages taken from Emersonâs The Poet, and Whitmanâs Preface to Leaves of Grass, illustrate how these two writers divert away from relating beauty directly with literature, and instead deem that beauty is instilled within the writer. Furthermore, they declare that the beauty great writers inherently possess will come through naturally in the work they produce. Whitman elaborates on this contention saying, "folks expect the poet to indicate more than the beauty and dignity which always attach to dumb objects" (Preface, 2733). The idea behind the force of these words are manifested in the theory that Emerson and Whitman share in relation to self-awareness; that is to say, beauty flows from a natural metamorphosis of thought, unconsciously and without effort, from within the writerâs mind, and then put down on paper.

The original idea and subsequent evolution of a work of literature was a point that Poe not only defined differently than Emerson or Whitman, but he even goes as far as asserting that all writers have a methodology for composing literature similar to his own. In fact, Poe alleges, "most writers÷poets in especial÷prefer having it understood that they compose by a species of fine frenzy÷an ecstatic intuition" (1529). He disagrees with this fantastical attitude insisting "either history affords a thesis÷or one is suggested by an incident of the day, or at best [ . . . ] the combination of striking events" might shape "the basis of [a] narrative," but the "designing,

[ . . . ] description, [and/or] dialogue, render themselves apparent" in the "step by step" writing process (1529). In Poe's opinion, the source of an idea for a poetic composition was not acquired through some divine intervention or sudden flash of inspiration, but based on consciously observing real situations.

Elaborating on the fears incased within the unconscious realm of the mind was a constant thematic position in Poe's storyline. He "ground[s] the notion of perversity" by "accounting for the human temptation to deny the conditions of humanity, or in other words, the will to be monstrous" (Rosenheim, 32). Whether he is directly relating to the Îdemonsâ in his own mind or inspired by something else, Poe wrote the plots of his stories "as one in which the narrator is 'acting out' a fantasy or an unconscious impulse, as opposed to remembering something, [which is] an opposite way of bringing the past into the present" (Rosenheim, 31). Instead of fleeing the past or fearing the present, Poe works to merge the past together with the present to facilitate a true self-awareness that results from a union of both the conscious and unconscious realms of the mind.

Whitman and Emerson had a slightly different view of the relationship between the past and present. Instead of merging the two time conditions, through "image[s] and symbol[s]," Whitman "dissolv[ed] all miracles in the universal miracle, living wholly in the present where eternity is to be found" (Waggoner, 150). Emerson also protests Poe, saying that "history is an impertinence and an injury, if it be any thing more than a cheerful apologue or parable of my being and becoming" (270). Naturally the past is a memory and how it relates to a present condition or situation, is controlled by the individual; and moreover, it is the relevance of this connection to the sentience of an individual that these authors disagreed upon.

There was a definite hostility between Poe and his contemporaries when it came to any topic related with creative writing; and more precisely, this discord appears to stem from the questions regarding consciousness and how it should relate to the differing elements of poetic composition. Poe demonstrated his resentment at the end of The Philosophy of Composition, when he wrote:

"some amount of suggestiveness÷some undercurrent [ . . . ] of meaning [ . . . ] imparts to a work of art so much of that richness [ . . . ]which we are too fond of confounding with the ideal. It is the excess of the suggested meaning÷it is the rendering this the upper instead of the under current of the theme÷which turns into prose (and that of the very flattest kind) the so called poetry of the so called transcendentalists" (1536).

Poe's antagonistic remarks are probably related to his poor reputation among his colleagues, as "the majority of the most respected American writers and critics have seen no reason to value his work highly," and especially "Emerson, [who is] usually so kind in his judgements, dismisse[s] him contemptuously" (Waggoner, 136). Ironically it is this very thing, the difference between Poe and Emerson that link them together in the one trait of Romanticism they both demonstrate: independent thinking.

Works Cited

Cavell, Stanley. "Being Odd, Getting Even." The American Face of Edgar Allan Poe. Ed. Shawn Rosenheim and Stephen Rachman. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1995. 3-36.

Chai, Leon. The Romantic Foundations of the American Renaissance. Ithaka: Cornell University Press, 1987.

Coleridge, Samuel. The Portable Coleridge. Ed. I. A. Richards. New York: Penguin Books, 1950.

Emerson, Ralph Waldo. Essays and Lectures. Comp. Joel Porte. New York: Literary Classics, 1983.

Lauter, Paul, ed. The Heath Anthology of American Literature. 3^rd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1998.

Poe, Edgar Allan. The Philosophy of Composition. Lauter 1529-37.

Waggoner, Hyatt H. American Poets: From the Puritans to the Present. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1984.

Whitman, Walt. Preface to Leaves of Grass. Lauter 2729-43.

---. Song of Myself. Lauter 2743-94.